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Chapter One: Introduction

ANATOMICAL POSITION
AND TERMS OF
DIRECTION

when studying the human body it is
important to place the body in
anatomical position. Anatomical
position is described as the body
facing you, feet placed together and
flat on the floor. The head is held
erect, arms straight by the side with
palms facing forward. All references
to the body are made as if the body is
in this position so when you describe
something as being above something
else it is always with respect to the
body being in anatomical position.

The relative position of the parts of
the human body has specific terms.
Superior means above while
inferior means below. Medial refers
to being close to the midline while
lateral means to the side. Anterior
or ventral is to the front while
posterior or dorsal is to the back.
Superficial is near the surface while
deep means to the core of the body.
When working with the limbs,
proximal means closer to the trunk
while distal is to the ends of the
extremities. Write the directional
terms in the spaces provided and
color in the arrows in reference to
these terms. Note that these terms
are somewhat different for four
legged animals.

Answer Key: a. Superior, b. Inferior,
c. Lateral, d. Medial, e. Proximal,
f. Distal, g. Anatomical position,
h. Posterior, i. Anterior, j. Dorsal,
k. Ventral

Chapter One
Introduction

KAPLAN. . .

medical

ANATOMICAL PLANES OF
THE BODY

Many specimens in anatomy are
sectioned so that the interior of the
organ or region can be examined. It
is important that the direction of the
cut is known so that the proper
orientation of the specimen is
known. A heart looks very different
if it is cut along its length as opposed
to horizontally. A horizontal cut is
known as a transverse section or a
cross section. A cut that divides the
body or an organ into anterior and
posterior parts is a coronal section
or frontal section. One that divides
the structure into left and right parts
is a sagittal section. If the body is
divided directly down the middle the
section is known as a midsagittal
section. A midsagittal section is
usually reserved for dividing the
body into to equal left and right
parts. If an organ (such as the eye) is
sectioned into two equal parts such
that there is a left and right half then
this is known as a median section.
Label the illustrations and color in
the appropriate planes.

Answer Key: a. Frontal (coronal) plane,

b. Transverse (cross-section) plane,

c. Median (midsagittal) plane

Chapter One
Introduction

KAPLAN..

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HIERARCHY OF THE BODY

The human body can be studied at different levels. Organs such as the
stomach can be grouped into organ systems (digestive system) or can be
studied on a smaller scale like the cellular level. The ranking of these
levels is called a hierarchy. The smallest organizational unit is the atom.
Individual atoms are grouped into larger structures called molecules.

These in turn make up organeDes, which are part of a larger, more
complicated systems called cells. Cells are the structural and functional
units of life. Cells are clustered into tissues. Organs are discreet units
made up of two or more tissues and organs are grouped into organ
systems that compose the organism. Label the levels of the hierarchy
and color each item a different color.

Answer Key: a. Organism (human), b. Organ system (respiratory system) c. Organ (lung), d. Tissue (epithelium), e. Organelle (cilia), f. Molecule, g. Atom, h. cells

Chapter One
Introduction

KAPLAir.. .

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REGIONS OF THE
ABDOMEN

In anatomy the abdomen is divided
into nine regions. Write the names of
the regions in the spaces indicated.
Color both the left and right
hypochondriac regions in light blue.
Hypochondriac means "below the
cartilage." The common use of the
word (someone who thinks they are
sick all the time) reflects the Greek
origin of the word as the ancient
Greeks considered the region to be
the center of sadness. Inferior to the
hypochondriac regions are the
lumbar or lateral abdominal
regions. These are commonly known
as the "love handles." Use yellow for
these regions. Below the lumbar
regions are the inguinal or iliac
regions. You should color in these
regions with the same shade of
green. In the middle of the
abdomen is the umbilical region.
Color this region in red. Above this
is the epigastric region [epi = above
anA gastric = stomach). Color this
region in purple. Below the
umbilical region is the hypogastric
region {hypo = below). Color this
region in a darker blue.

b.
c.

In clinical settings a quadrant
approach is used. Write the names of
the regions (right upper quadrant,
left upper quadrant, right lower
quadrant, left lower quadrant) in
the spaces provided. Color each
quadrant a different color.

Answer Key: a Right hypochondriac,

b. Right lumbar (lateral abdominal),

c. Umbilical, d. Right inguinal or iliac,
e. Epigastric, f. Left hypochondriac,
g. Left lumbar (lateral abdominal),

h. Left inguinal or iliac, i. Hypogastric,
). Left upper quadrant, k. Right upper
quadrant, I. Left lower quadrant,
m. Right lower quadrant

Chapter One
Introduction

KAPLAN. ,

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ORGAN SYSTEMS

The human body is either studied by regions or by organs systems. This
booJ(. uses the organ system approach in which individual organs (such
as bones) are grouped into the larger organ system (for example, the
skeletal system). Typically eleven organ systems are described. The
skeletal system consists of all of the bones of the body. Examples are the
femur and the humerus. The nervous system consists of the nerves,
spinal cord, and brain while the lymphatic system consists of lymph
glands, conducting tubes called lymphatics, and organs such as the
spleen. The term immune system is more of a functional classification

and will not be treated as a separate system here. The muscular system
consists of individual skeletal muscles as organs such as the pectoralis
major and deltoid. Label the organ systems underneath each illustration
and label the selected organs by using the terms available. When you
finish, select different colors for each organ system and color them in.

Organ System

Skeletal system
Nervous system
Lymphatic system
Muscular system

Organ

Femur
Nerves

Lymph glands
Pectoralis major

Organ

Humerus
Spinal cord
Spleen
Deltoid

Organ

Brain

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m..

Answer Key:

a. Humerus,

b. Femur, c. Skeletal,
d. Brain, e. Spinal
cord, f. Nerves,

g. Nervous,

h. Spleen, i. Lymph

nodes, j. Lymphatic,

v.. Deltoid,

1. Pectoralis major,

m. Muscular

Chapter One
Introduction

KAPLAN. . ,

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ORGAN SYSTEMS (CONTINUED)

The skin and other structures are in the integumentary system and the
digestive system involves the breakdovi'n and absorption of food with
organs such as the esophagus and stomach. The endocrine system is
made of the glands that secrete hormones such as the thyroid gland and
the adrenal glands. The respiratory system involves the transfer of
oxygen and carbon dioxide betvireen the air and the blood. The
respiratory system consists of organs such as the trachea and lungs.

Label the organ systems underneath each illustration and label the
selected organs by using the terms available. When you finish, select
different colors for each organ system and color them in.

Organ System

Organ

Integumentary system

Skin

Digestive system

Esophagus

Stomach

Endocrine system

Thyroid gland

Adrenal glands

Respiratory system

Trachea

Lungs

e.-

Answer Key: a. Skin, b. Integumentary, c. Esophagus, d. Stomach, e. Digestive, f. Thyroid gland, g. Adrenal gland, h. Endocrine, i. Trachea, j. Lung, k. Respirator/

Chapter One
Introduction

KAPLAN. . .

medical

ORGAN SYSTEMS (CONTINUED)

The heart and associated bloodvessels compose the cardiovascular
system which circulates blood throughout the body. The urinary system
filters, stores, and conducts some wastes from the body. The bladder and
urethra are part of the urinary system. The testes and ovaries are part
of the reproductive system and this system perpetuates the species. The
differentiation of male and female systems makes this organ system
unique among the other systems. These eleven organs systems can be
remembered by the memory clue LN Cries Drum. Each letter represents

the first letter of a name of an organ system. Label the organ systems
underneath each illustration and label the selected organs by using the
terms available. When you finish, select different colors for each organ
system and color them in.

Organ System Organ Organ

Cardiovascular system Heart Blood vessels

Urinary system Bladder Urethra

Reproductive system Testes Ovaries

Answer Key: a. Heart, b. Blood
vessels, c. Cardiovascular, d. Bladder,
e. Urethra, f. Urinary, g. Ovary, h. Testis,
I. Reproductive

Chapter One
Introduction

KAPLAN, . , , c

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BODY REGIONS
(ANTERIOR)

There are specific anatomical terms
for regions of the body. These areas
or regions frequently have Greek or
Latin names because early western
studies in anatomy occurred in
Greece and Rome. During the
Renaissance, European scholars
studied anatomy and applied the
ancient names to the structures.
Label the various regions of the body
and fill in their names. You can use a
standard anatomy text or follow the
key at the bottom of the page. A list
of terms and their common names
follows for the anterior side of the
body. Color in the regions of the
body.

cranial (head)
facial (face)
cervical (neck)
deltoid (shoulder)
pectoral (chest)
sternal (center of chest)
brachial (arm)
antebrachial (forearm)
manual (hand)
digital (fingers)
abdominal (belly)
inguinal (groin)
coxal (hip)
femoral (thigh)
genicular (knee)
crural (leg)
pedal (foot)
digital (toes)

Answer Key: a. Cranial (head), b. Facial
(face), c. Cervical (neck), d. Deltoid
(shoulder), e. Sternal (center of chest),
i. Pectoral (chest), g. Brachial (arm),
h. Abdominal (belly), i. Antebrachial
(forearm), j. Coxal (hip), k. Manual
(hand), 1. Digital (fingers), m. Inguinal,
n. Femoral (thigh), o. Genicular (knee),
p. Crural (leg), q. Pedal (foot), r. Digital
(toes)

/ V-x^^

chapter One
Introduction

KAPLAN. . . ,-,

medical ^'

BODY REGIONS
(POSTERIOR)

For the posterior view of the body
fill in the terms and color the regions
of the body. The anatomical names
are given first with the common
names in parentheses.

cephalic (head)
nuchal (neck)
scapular (shoulder blade)
vertebral (backbone)
lumbar (love handles)
brachial (arm)
olecranon (elbow)
antebrachial (forearm)
gluteal (buttocks)
femoral (thigh)
popliteal (back of knee)
sural (calf)
calcaneal (heel)

Answer Key: a.Cephalic (head),

b. Nuchal (neck), c Scapular (shoulder

blade), d. Brachial (arm), e. Vertebral

(backbone), f. Olecranon (elbow),

g. Lumbar (love handles),

h. Antebrachial (forearm), i. Gluteal

(buttocks), j. Femoral (thigh),

k. Popliteal (back of knee), I. Sural

(calf), m. Calcaneal (heel)

Chapter One
Introduction

medical '^

BODY CAVITIES

The organs of the body are frequently found in body cavities. The body
is divided into two main cavities, the dorsal body cavity and the ventral
body cavity. The dorsal body cavity consists of the cranial cavity, vifhich
houses the brain and the spinal canal, vi^hich surrounds the spinal cord.
The ventral body cavity contains the upper thoracic cavity, vi^hich is
subdivided into the pleural cavities, housing the lungs, and the

mediastinum. The mediastinum contains the heart in the pericardial
cavity, the major vessels near the heart, nerves, and the esophagus.
Below the thoracic cavity is the abdominopelvic cavity, which contains
the upper abdominal cavity, housing the digestive organs, and the
inferior pelvic cavity, which holds the uterus and rectum in females or
just the rectum in males. Label the specific and major cavities of the
body and color them with different colors.

Answer Key: a. Dorsal body cavity, b. Cranial cavity, c. Spinal canal, d. Ventral body cavity, e. Thoracic cavity, f. Mediastinum, g. Pericardial cavity, h. Pleural cavity,
I. Abdominopelvic cavity, j. Abdominal cavity, k. Pelvic cavity

Chapter Two: Cells, Tissues, and Integument | 21

OVERVIEW OF CELL AND CELL MEMBRANE

Cells consist of an enclosing plasma membrane, an inner cytoplasm
with numerous organelles, and other cellular structures. The fluid
portion of the cell is called the cytosol. Color the cytosol in last after you
color the rest of the cellular structures. One of the major structures in
the cell is the nucleus. It is the genetic center of the cell and consists of
fluid karyoplasm, chromatin (containing DNA), and the nucleolus.
Color these features and label them on the illustration.

The cytoskeleton consists of microtubules, intermediate filaments and
microfilaments. It is involved in maintaining cell shape, fixing
organelles, and directing some cellular activity.

Label the organelles of the cell and use a different color for each one. The
mitochondria are the energy-producing structures of the cell while the

Golgi apparatus assembles complex biomolecules and transports them
out of the cell. Proteins are made in the cell by ribosomes. If the
ribosomes are found by themselves in the cytoplasm, they are called free
ribosomes. If they are attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum,
they are called bound ribosomes. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum
manufactures lipids and helps in breaking down toxic materials in the
cell. Other structures in the cell are vesicles (sacs that hold liquids).
Phagocytic vesicles ingest material into the cell. Lysosomes contain
digestive enzymes while peroxisomes degrade hydrogen peroxide in the
cell. After you label and color the organelles make sure to go back and
shade in the cytosol. Centrioles are microtubules grouped together and
are involved in cell division.

The plasma membrane is composed of a phospholipid bUayer. Color
the phosphate molecules on the outside and inside of the membrane
one color and the lipid layer another color. Cholesterol molecules occur
in the membrane and, depending on their concentration, can make the
membrane stiff or more fluid. Proteins that are found on the outside of
the membrane are called peripheral proteins while proteins that pass

through the membrane are called integral proteins. Frequently these
make up gates or channels that allow material to pass through the
membrane. Attached to proteins on the cell membrane are carbohydrate
chains. These provide cellular identity. Label and color the cell
membrane structures.

Answer Key: a. Coigi apparatus, b. Lysosome, c. Peroxisome, d. Phagocytic vesicle, e. Nucleus, f. Nucleolus, g. Chromatin, h. Karyoplasm, i. Cytoskeletori,
J. Ceritrioles, k. Plasma membrarie, I. Cytoplasm, m. Rough endoplasmic reticulum, n. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum, o. Mitochondrion, p. Free ribosomes,
q. Phospholipid bilayer, r. Integral protein, s. Carbohydrate chain, t. Peripheral protein, u. Phosphate molecule, v. Lipid layer, w. Cholesterol molecule

Chapter Two
Cells, Tissues, and Integument

KHPLAN' , .-

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SIMPLE EPITHELIA

There are four types of tissues in
humans and these make up all of the
organs and binding material in the
body. Epithelial tissue makes up
linings of the body. In many cases,
where there is exposure (outside,
such as the skin, or inside, such as in
blood vessels), epithelium is the
tissue found. It is named according
to its layers (typically simple or
stratified) and the shape of cells
(such as cuboidal). Simple
squamous epithelium is a single
layer of flattened cells. Simple
cuboidal epithelium is also a single
layer of cells but the cells are in the
shape of cubes. Simple columnar
epithelium is a single layer of long
columnar cells. Label and color these
epithelial types and pay attention to
the basement membrane, the
noncellular layer that attaches the
epithelium to lower layers. It should
be colored red. Color the nuclei in
purple, the cytoplasm blue, and
label the cells.

Pseudostratified ciliated columnar
epithelium is in a single layer of cells
but it looks stratified on first
appearance. Not all of the cells reach
the surface of the tissue. All of the
cells reach the basement membrane.
Label and color the nuclei,
basement membrane, cell
membrane and the cilia in this
tissue.

Top view . • '/':_ : ■;.

Side view

Answer Key: a. Simple squamous
epithelium, b. Simple cuboidal
epithelium, c. Simple columnar
epithelium, d. Cilia, e. Cell membrane,
t. Nuclei, g. Basement membrane,
h. Pseudostratified ciliated columnar
epithelium

Chapter Two
Cells, Tissues, and Integument

medical ^^

STRATIFIED EPITHELIA

There are two common epithelial
tissues that are many-layered.
Stratified squamous epithelium is

many layers of flattened cells. Label
and color the basement membrane
red, color the cytoplasm blue, and
the nuclei purple. There are two
major types of stratified squamous
epithelium. Keratinized epithelium
is found on the skin and is
toughened by the protein keratin.
Non-keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium is found in the oral cavity
and vagina and is a mucous
membrane.

Another main type of layered
epithelial tissue is transitional
epithelium. This is tissue that lines
part of the urinary tract including
the bladder. When the bladder is
empty, the cells bunch up on one
another and the tissue is thick. When
the bladder is full, the cells stretch
out into a few layers. Label the cell
types for each picture and color the
structures in the same way as in
previous illustrations.

Stretched

Relaxed

Answer Key: a. Stratified squamous
epithelium, b. Transitional epithelium

Chapter Two
Cells, Tissues, and Integument

KAPLAN. . .

medical

GLANDS

There are several types of glands in
the human body. Some of these
glands secrete their products into
tubes or ducts. These are known as
exocrine glands. Other glands
secrete their products into the spaces
between cells where they are picked
up by the blood or lymph system.
These are the endocrine glands.
Endocrine glands secrete hormones
that have an impact on target tissues
of the body.

Glands can be unicellular or
multicellular. Glands that consist of
just one cell are called goblet cells.
They secrete mucus, which is a
lubricant. There are many types of
multicellular glands. They are
classified by how they secrete their
products. Some glands secrete
products from vesicles pinched off
from the cell. These are called
merocine glands. In these glands no
cellular material is lost in the
secretion of material. An example of
a merocrine gland is a sweat gland.
Some cells squeeze parts of the cell
off to secrete cellular products.
These are known as apocrine glands.
The lactiferous glands that produce
milk are apocrine glands. Some
secretions occur by the entire cell
rupturing. These are called
holocrine glands. Oil glands of the
skin are holocrine glands. Label the
glands and color them in on the
figure.

Surface

Capillary

b. _

6^,

Capillary

Answer Key: a. Exocrine gland,
b. Endocrine gland, c. Goblet cell,
d. Merocrine glands, e. Vesicles,
f. Apocrine glands, g. Holocrine glands

Chapter Two
Cells, Tissues, and Integument

meclical 29

CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Connective tissue is a varied group
of associated tissues, all of which are
derived from an embryonic tissue
known as mesenchyme. Connective
tissue not only has cells, as do all of
the other tissues, but it also has
fibers and a large amount of
background substance called
matrix. There are many specific
tissues that belong to connective
tissue. Loose connective tissue is
found wrapping around organs or
under the epidermis and it is
composed of collagenous, elastic,
and reticular fibers, a liquid matrix
and numerous cells, many of which
have an immune function. Dense
regular connective tissue has a few
cells called fibrocytes and a small
amount of matrix with most of the
tissue composed of a regular
arrangement of collagenous fibers.
This specific tissue makes up tendons
and ligaments. If the fibers are not in
an orderly arrangement, then the
tissue is called dense irregular
connective tissue. This tissue is
found in places like the white of
the eye.

Answer Key. a. Matrix, b. Fibrocyte,
c. Collagenous fiber, d. Elastic fiber,
e. Loose connective tissue, f. Dense
regular connective tissue, g. Dense
irregular connective tissue

Chapter Two
Cells, Tissues, and Integument

KAPLAir..

medical

CONNECTIVE TISSUE
(CONTINUED)

Elastic connective tissue contains
elastic fibers and is found in areas
that recoil when stretched such as in
the walls of arteries. Retictilar
connective tissue consists of
reticular fibers that form an internal
support in soft organs such as the
liver and spleen. Adipose tissue
consists of specialized fat-storing
cells called adipocytes. Label and
color the components of these
connective tissues.

^'^S^^^^^^

Answer Key: a. Collagenous fibers,
b. Elastic fibers, c. Elastic connective
tissue, d. Reticular fibers, e. Reticular
connective tissue, f. Adipose tissue

Chapter Two
Cells, Tissues, and Integument

KAPLAN-.. .

medical

CARTILAGE

There are three types of cartilage in
connective tissue. The most
common kind of cartilage is hyaline
cartilage. It contains a semisolid
matrix, collagenous fibers, and
chondrocytes (cartilage cells). The
end of the nose is pliable due to
hyaline cartilage. Fibrocartilage is
like hyaline cartilage, having the
same components, but there are
more collagenous fibers in
fibrocartilage. It is found in areas
where there is more stress, such as
the joint between the bones of the
thigh and leg. Elastic cartilage has a
matrix, chondrocytes, and elastic
fibers. These fibers make the
cartilage more bendable than hyaline
cartilage. Label and color the cells
and fibers of cartilage and use a light
color to shade the matrix such as a
pale pink or blue.

■■-;*#"'

Answer Key: a. Matrix, b. Chondrocytes,
c Hyaline cartilage, d. Collagenous
fibers, e. Fibrocartilage, f Elastic fibers,
g. Elastic cartilage

chapter Two
Cells, Tissues, and Integument

medical

BONE AND BLOOD

Bone is a connective tissue. The cells
are the osteocytes and the fibers are
collagenous fibers enclosed in a hard
matrix of bone salts. You will not see
the fibers in the illustration because
they are covered by the dense matrix.
Label and color the osteocytes and
matrix of bone.

Blood is another kind of connective
tissue. The matrix in blood is the
plasma and the cells are
erythrocytes (red blood cells) and
leukocytes (white blood cells).

Platelets are small flat disks in the
blood that aid in clotting.

0°QS

m^-jj

Answer Key: a. Matrix, b. Osteocyte.
c. Bone, d. Erythrocyte, e. Platelet,
f. Leukocytes, g. Plasma, h. Blood

chapter Two
Cells, Tissues, and Integument

KAPLAir.. -

medical

MUSCLE AMD NERVOUS TISSUE

Muscular tissue is composed of specialized cells involved in contraction.
Skeletal muscle makes up body muscles and represents around 40
percent of the body mass. Skeletal muscle is striated and the fusion of
individual cells produces longer, mature cells that are multinucleate.
These nuclei are found on the edges of the cells. Skeletal muscle can be
consciously controlled and is called voluntary muscle. Label and color the
striations of the skeletal muscle cells, the nuclei, and individual cells.

Cardiac muscle is also striated but the striations are not as obvious as in
skeletal muscle. This muscle is found in the heart and is involuntary. It
does not involve conscious control. Cardiac muscle typically has only
one centrally located nucleus per cell, and the cells themselves are
branched. They attach to other cells by intercalated discs, which allow
communication between cells for the conduction of impulses during the
cardiac cycle. Label and color these features on the illustration.

Smooth muscle is not striated and it is involuntary. The cells are slender
and have one nucleus located in the center of the cell. It is widely
distributed in the body, making up, among other things, part of the
digestive system, reproductive system, and integumentary system.
Smooth muscle is found in glands and other areas not under conscious
control. Label and color the nucleus and cell of smooth muscle.

Nervous tissue consists of the neuron and associated glial cells.

Neurons have numerous branched extensions called dendrites, a central
nerve cell body (soma) that houses the nucleus, and a long extension
called an axon. The glial cells, also known as neuroglia, have many
functions. Some of these are supportive of the neuron and some may
involve processing of neural information. Label and color the parts of
the neuron and the glial cells.

Answer Key: a. Striations, b. Nuclei, c. Cell, d. Skeletal muscle, e. Intercalated disc, f. Cardiac muscle, g. Smooth muscle, h. Nervous tissue, i. Nerve cell body,
j. Glial cells (Neuroglia), k. Dendrites, I. Nucleus, m. Axon

chapter Two
Cells, Tissues, and Integument

KAPLAir,. ,

medical

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

The most superficial layer of the skin
is the epidermis. Color the five layers
of the epidermis. The deepest layer is
the stratum basale and there are
specific cells called melanocytes that
secrete the brown pigment melanin.
Color the majority of the stratum
basale pink but color the
melanocytes brown. Color the
stratum spinosum a light blue. The
stratum granulosum has purple
granules in it so color that layer
using purple dots. The stratum
lucidum (found only in thick skin)
is a thin, light colored layer so yellow
or white are good colors for this
tissue. Color the superficial stratum
corneum orange.

The overview of the skin contains
many layers. Color the epidermis a
red-orange. The dermis consists of
two layers, an upper papillary layer,
which should be colored in a light
pink, and a deeper reticular layer,
which should be colored a darker
pink. There are sweat glands that are
found in the dermis that can be
colored purple. You should color the
hypodermis (not a part of the
integument) yellow because of the
amount of fat found there. Two
types of touch receptors can easily be
seen in microscopic sections. These
are the Meissner corpuscles and the
Pacinian corpuscles.

Answer Key: a. Stratum corneum,
b. Stratum lucidum, c Stratum
granulosum, d. Stratum spinosum,
e. Stratum basale, i Melanocyte,
g. Epidermis, h. Papillary layer,
1. Reticular layer, j. Dermis,
k. Hypodermis, I- Sweat gland,
m. Pacinian corpuscle,
n. Meissner corpuscle

epidermis magnified

m >h

-J-

-k.-

Chapter Two
Cells, Tissues, and Integument

KAPLAN'. . .,

medical ^i

HAIR AND NAILS

Hair consists of several parts. The hair originates from the dermal
papilla and the deepest part of the hair is known as the hair bulb. The
hair is pushed superficially and forms the hair root (the part of the hair
enclosed in the skin). Once the hair erupts from the skin it is known as
the hair shaft. Color the three sections of hair different shades of blue.
The hair is enclosed by the hair follicle, which should be colored purple.

Associated with the hair are the arrector pili muscle, which is made of
smooth muscle and is colored pink, and an oil-secreting gland known as
the sebaceous gland, which should be colored yellow.

Fingernails and toenails are considered accessory structures of the
integument. Color the diagram labeling the nail plate, the free edge, the
nail fold, the lunula, eponychium (cuticle), nail root, hyponychium
and the nail bed.

^S^BB

■^tZS:

^.::

Answer Key: a. Bulb, b. Follicle, c. Root, d. Shaft, e. Sebaceous gland, f. Arrector pili. g. Pacinian corpuscle, h. Nail plate, i. Nail fold, j. Lunula, k. Eponychium,
I. Nail root, m. Free edge, n. Hyponychium, o. Nail matrix (Nail bed)

Chapter Three: Skeletal System

FRONTAL ASPECT OF THE SKULL

The skull is a complex structure. There are 8 cranial bones and 14 facial
bones in the skull. From the anterior view most of the facial bones can be
seen and some of the cranial bones are visible too. The bone that makes
up the forehead and extends beyond the eyebrows is the frontal bone.
This bone forms the upper rim of the orbit, which is a socket that
encloses the eye. In the back of the orbit is the sphenoid bone and the
lateral walls of the orbit are composed of the zygomatic bones. The
bridge of the nose consists of the paired nasal bones and just lateral to

them are the two maxillae. These bones hold the upper teeth. The lower
teeth are held by the mandible. Inside the nasal cavity two projections
can be seen. These are the inferior nasal conchae. The wall that divides the
nasal cavity is the nasal septum and it consists of two bones, the ethmoid
bone and the vomer. Along the side of the skull are the temporal bones,
located posterior to the zygomatic bones. Label the major bones of the
skull and color them in. As you color in the skull try to use the same color
for the same bone on different pages. This will help you associate the
same bone with various views from which it can be seen.

Answer Key: a. Orbit, b. Frontal bone, c. Temporal bone, d. Sphenoid bone, e. Nasal bone, f. Zygomatic bone, g. Nasal septum, h. Maxilla, i. Mandible

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LATERAL VIEW OF THE SKULL

Many bones seen from the anterior view can also be seen from the lateral
view. The frontal bone is joined to the parietal bones by the coronal
suture. The parietal bones span much of the cranium and articulate with
the occipital bone at the lambdoid suture. There is a posterior
extension of the occipital bone known as the external occipital
protuberance. The exterior aspect of the temporal bone is seen from the
lateral view and many of the significant features such as the mastoid
process, external acoustic meatus, and styloid process are visible. On the
side is the elongated zygomatic process. The temporal bone articulates
with other cranial bones by the squamous suture. The bone anterior to
the temporal bone is the sphenoid bone. It is a bone that is found in the
middle of the skull. The nasal bone is visible from the lateral view and its
relationship with the maxilla can be seen here. Behind the maxilla is the

lacrimal bone which houses the nasolacrimal canal, a duct that drains
tears from the eye into the nose. The mandible articulates with the rest
of the skull at the mandibular condyle. A depression in front of the
condyle is the mandibular notch and the anterior section of bone in
front of the notch is the coronoid process. Label the major features of
the skull seen in lateral view and color each bone a different color.

Details of the mandible can be seen in the isolated bone. In addition to
the features of the mandible listed above, find the mandibular foramen
and the mental foramen of the mandible. These are holes for the passage
of nerves and blood vessels. The main portion of the mandible is the
body and the upright part is the ramus. The angle is the posterior
junction of these two parts. The teeth are located in alveoli and the small
segments of bone between the teeth are the alveolar processes. Label the
features of the mandible.

Answer Key. a. Coronal suture, b. Parietal bones, c. Zygomatic process, d. Temporal bone, e. Squamous suture, f Lambdoid suture, g. External occipital protuberance,
h. Occipital bone, i. Mastoid process, j. External acoustic meatus, k. Styloid process, I. IVIandible, m. Maxilla, n. Zygomatic bone, o. Nasal bone, p. Lacrimal bone,
q. Sphenoid bone, r Frontal bone, s. Coronoid process, t. Mandibular foramen, u. Mandibular notch, v. Mandibular condyle, w. Ramus, x. Angle,
y. Body, z. Mental foramen

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SKULL-TOP AND BOHOM
VIEWS

The superior aspect of the skull
consists of few bones and few
sutures. The frontal bone is the
most anterior bone with the parietal
bones directly posterior to it. The
coronal suture separates the two
and the sagittal suture separates the
parietal bones. The lambdoid suture
separates the parietal bone from the
occipital bone. Label the bones and
sutures and color the bones in the
illustrations.

The inferior aspect of the skull is
more complex than the superior
view. In the inferior view the
mandible has been removed so some
of the underlying structures can be
seen. The large opening in the
occipital bone is the foramen
magnum. The two bumps lateral to
the foramen magnum are the
occipital condyles and the raised
bump at the posterior part of the
skull is the external occipital
protuberance. The more anterior
and lateral bone to the occipital
bone is the temporal bone. The
jugular foramen is located between
the occipital and temporal bone.
Another opening nearby is the
carotid canal. Lateral to this is the
styloid process, an attachment point
for muscles. Lateral to this is a
depression called the mandibular
fossa. It is here that the mandible
articulates with the temporal bone.
The sphenoid bone spans the skull
and the major features seen from the
inferior view are the greater wing,
and the lateral and medial
pterygoid plates. The hard palate is
made of the palatine process of the
maxilla and the palatine bones. The
bone that opens into the nasal cavity
is the vomer. Label and color these
features of the skull.

Answer Key: a. Frontal bone,
b. Coronal suture, c. Parietal bones,
d. Sagittal suture, e. Lambdoid suture,
f. Occipital bone, g. Palatine process of
the maxilla, h. Palatine bone, i. Vomer,
j. Greater wing, k. Lateral pterygoid
plate, I. Medial pterygoid plate,
m. Mandibular fossa, n. Styloid process,
o. Carotid canal, p. Jugular foramen,
q. Occipital condyles, r. Foramen
magnunn, s. External occipital
protuberance

Posterior

Anter

Posterior

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MIDSAGITTAL SECTION OF THE SKULL

Several features of the skull can be seen when it is sectioned in the
midsagittal plane. Locate the major bones of the skull and the features
seen in this section. The nasal septum consists of two bony structures, the
perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone and the vomer. The crista galli
extends superiorly from the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone. The
junction of the maxilla and the palatine bone that make up the hard
palate can be seen from this view as well. The frontal sinus and the
sphenoid sinus are two cavities seen here. Label the bones and the major
features of the midsagittal section of the skull using the terms provided.
Color the bones different colors and shade the sinuses in a darker shade
of the color used for the specific bones that hold the sinuses.

Frontal bone Parietal bone Occipital bone

Temporal bone Sphenoid bone Ethmoid bone

Maxilla Mandible Internal acoustic meatus

Styloid process Sella turcica Cribriform plate of the ethmoid

Nasal bone Palatine bone Perpendicularplate of the ethmoid

Vomer Crista galli Frontal sinus

Sphenoid sinus

Answer Key: a. Frontal bone, b. Frontal sinus, c. Nasal bone, d. Ethmoid bone, e. Crista galli, i Cribriform plate of the ethmoid, g. Perpendicular plate of the ethmoid,
h. Vomer, i. Maxilla, j. Palatine bone, k. IVlandible, I. Parietal bone, m. Temporal bone, n. Sella turcica, o. Occipital bone, p. Internal acoustic meatus, q. Sphenoid bone,
r. Sphenoid sinus

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SPHENOID, TEMPORAL,
AMD ETHMOID BONES

A few bones of the skull are
frequently studied as separate bones.
The sphenoid bone has a superficial
resemblance to a bat or butterfly.
There are the lesser wings, the
greater wings, and the pterygoid
plates, all of which resemble wings.
The dorsum sellae is the posterior
part of the sella turcica (a
depression that holds the pituitary
gland). Locate the foramen
rotundum and the foramen ovale
on the sphenoid bone. These holes
enclose parts of the trigeminal
nerve.

The temporal bone has a flat
squamous portion and a denser
petrous portion. The section of the
temporal bone that connects to the
zygomatic bone is the zygomatic
process. There are two significant
canals or meatuses for hearing.
These are the external acoustic
meatus and the internal acoustic
meatus. The mastoid process is a
large bump that can be palpated
directly posterior to the ear. The
styloid process anchors a number of
small muscles.

The ethmoid bone is located just
posterior to the nose and is best seen
isolated from the rest of the skull
bones. The cribriform plate that has
small holes called olfactory foramina
in it. Locate the crista galli and the
perpendicular plate. The ethmoid
has four curved structures lateral to
the perpendicular plate. These are
the two superior nasal conchae and
the two middle nasal conchae. The
ethmoid sinuses are numerous
small holes in the bone. Locate the
structures of these skull bones. Label
the illustration and color in the
features of the bones.

Answer Key:

(Sphenoid features), a. Sella turcica,
b. Lesser wing, c. Foramen rotundum,
d. Foramen ovale, e. Dorsum sellae,
f. Greater wing

(Temporal features), g. Squamous
portion, h. Zygomatic process,
i. External acoustic meatus, j. Styloid
process, k. Mastoid process

(Ethmoid features), I. Crista galli,
m. Middle nasal concha,
n. Perpendicular plate,
0. Superior nasal concha

Chapter Three
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VERTEBRAL COLUMN

We are unique as animals because of
our upright posture. The vertical
position of the spine is reflected in
the increase in size of the vertebra
from superior to inferior. The
vertebral column is divided into five
major regions. There are 7 cervical
vertebrae that occur in the neck
while the 1 2 thoracic vertebrae have
ribs attached to them. The 5 lumbar
vertebrae are found in the lower
back and the sacrum consists of 5
fused sacral vertebrae. The coccyx is
the terminal portion of the vertebral
column consisting of 4 coccygeal
vertebrae. The vertebral column in
the adult has curves. The uppermost
is the cervical curvature and the
lower ones are the thoracic, lumbar,
and pelvic curvatures. Label the
illustration with the regions and the
curvatures and color in the regions
with different colors. Color in the
curved arrows for the curvatures.

Answer Key: a. Cervical vertebrae
(cervical curvature), b. Thoracic
vertebrae (thoracic curvature),

c. Lumbar vertebrae (lumbar curvature),

d. Sacrum (pelvic curvature), e. Coccyx

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ATLAS

The atlas is the first cervical
vertebra. It is unique among the
vertebrae because it has no body.
Label the vertebral foramen,
superior articular facet, the
transverse foramen, and the lateral

AXIS

The axis is the second cervical
vertebra and it has a body with a
projection that arises from the body
known as the odontoid process or
dens. Label the axis including the
superior articular facets, the
transverse foramen, the spinous
process, and the vertebral foramen.
Color these features in.

ATLAS AND AXIS

Here are the atlas and axis together.
Color the two bones separate colors.

HYOID

The hyoid bone is a floating bone,
which means that it has no hard
attachments to other bones. The
main part of the hyoid is the body
and the two horns that arise from
the hyoid are the greater cornua and
the lesser cornua. Label these parts
of the bone and color them in
separate colors.

Answer Key: a. Vertebral foramen, b. Lateral masses, c Transverse foramen, d. Superior articular facet

e. Spinous process, f Body, g. Odontoid process (dens), h. Axis, i. Atlas, j. Lesser cornua, k. Greater cornua, I. Body

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CERVICAL, THORACIC,
AND LUMBAR VERTEBRAE

Features common to vertebrae

The opening where the spinal cord
passes through the vertebra is
known as the vertebral foramen.
The body of the vertebra is the
weight-bearing part of the vertebra
and the spinous process is the part
that extends posteriorly. This process
is an extension from the vertebral
arch that curves from the body
enclosing the vertebral foramen.
This arch is composed of the two
pedicles and the two laminae. The
superior articular process and the
superior articular facet (the flat
surface on the process) are the parts
that join with the vertebra above.
The inferior articular process and
the inferior articular facet are the
parts of the vertebra that join with
the vertebra below.

Typical cervical vertebrae
superior and lateral view

Cervical vertebrae are distinct from
all other vertebrae by having two
transverse foramina. These house
blood vessels. Another characteristic
of the cervical vertebrae is that several
of them have a bifid spinous process

Typical thoracic vertebrae
superior and lateral view

The thoracic vertebrae typically have
longer spinous processes than
cervical vertebrae and many of them
point in an inferior direction. The
body is larger in thoracic vertebrae,
and they are the only bones with
costal facets that are attachment
points for the heads of ribs. The
transverse processes can be seen
along with the transverse costal
facets.

Typical lumbar vertebrae
superior and lateral view

The lumbar vertebrae have larger
bodies because they support more
weight. The spinous process is
shorter and more horizontal in
lumbar vertebrae than in thoracic
vertebrae. There are no costal facets
and no transverse foramina. Label
the parts of the vertebrae illustrated
and color them in.

Answer Key: a. Bifid spinous process,
b. Spinous process, c. Vertebral
foramen, d. Lamina, e. Pedicle,

f. Superior articular process,

g. Transverse process, h. Body,

i. Inferior articular process, j. Transverse
foramen, k, Superior costal facet,
I. Inferior costal facet

Cervical Vertebra

Thoracic Vertebra

Lumbar Vertebra

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SACRUM AND COCCYX

Sacrum and coccyx, anterior view

The terminal portion of the
vertebral column consists of two
structures that are fused bones. The
sacrum is 5 fused vertebrae and the
coccyx is 3-5 fused vertebrae. The
top rim of the sacrum is the sacral
promontory and the wing-like
expansion where the ilium attaches
is the ala. The area where the
vertebrae join are the transverse
lines. The holes running down each
side are the anterior sacral
foramina. At the top of the sacrum
are the superior articular processes
and they attach to the lumbar
vertebra. Label and color the parts of
the sacrum and the coccyx.

Sacrum and coccyx, posterior
view

From the posterior view the median
sacral crest is the fused remains of
the spinous processes of the
vertebrae. The posterior sacral
foramina are on each side of the
crest and the lateral sacral crests are
lateral to the foramina. The superior
articular processes can be seen from
this view and also the auricular
surface which forms part of the
sacroiliac joint. Label the features of
the sacrum and the coccyx and color
them in.

Answer Key: a. Superior articular
process, b. Ala, c. Sacral promontor/,
d. Transverse lines, e. Anterior sacral
foramina, f. Coccyx, g. Auricular surface,
h. Lateral sacral crest, i. Median sacral
crest, j. Posterior sacral foramina

chapter Three
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KAPLAN-., , CI

medical ^'

STERNUM / RIBS / HYOID

The sternum is commonly known as
the breastbone and is divided into
three areas, the upper manubrium
with the suprasternal notch and the
clavicular notches, the body with
the costal notches (where the ribs
attach), and the xiphoid process.
Between the manubrium and the
body is the sternal angle. Label these
features on the illustration and color
the three major areas of the sternum
different colors.

If you select a rib as a representative
bone for all of the ribs, you will find
the terminal portion of the rib is
expanded in a head. The constricted
region below that is the neck. The
tubercle of the rib is a bump that
attaches to the transverse process of
the vertebra. The bend in the rib is
known as the angle and the
depressed area of the rib where
nerves and blood vessels are found is
the costal groove. Color in the
individual parts of a rib after you
label the figure and color the rib as it
joins with a vertebra.

Answer Key: a. Suprasternal notch,
b. Clavicular notch, c. Manubrium,
d. Sternal angle, e. Costal notches,
f. Body, g. Xiphoid process, h. Head,
i. Tubercle, j. Neck, k. Angle of rib,
I. Costal groove

Chapter Three
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KAPLAN. . .

medical

APPENDICULAR
SKELETON-PECTORAL
GIRDLE AND UPPER
EXTREMITY

The pectoral girdle is made of the
clavicles and the scapulae. The
upper extremity consists of the
humerus of the arm, the radius and
ulna of the forearm, and the carpals,
metacarpals, and phalanges of the
hand. Locate these major regions of
the upper extremity and label them
on the diagram. Color these areas in
different colors on the illustration.

Answer Key: a. Clavicle, b. Humerus,
c Scapula, d. Radius, e. Ulna, f. Carpals,
g. Metacarpals, h. Phalanges

chapter Three
Skeletal System

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SCAPULA

The pectoral girdle consists of the
scapulae and the clavicles. Each
scapula is a triangular bone and the
three edges are known as the
superior border, the lateral border,
and the medial border. The
scapular spine is on the posterior
surface and it expands into a
terminal process known as the
acromion process. Above the spine
is the supraspinous fossa. Below the
spine is the infraspinous fossa and
on the anterior side of the scapula is
the subscapular fossa and the
coracoid process. The inferior angle
of the scapula is at the junction of
the medial and lateral borders.
Inferior to the acromion process is
the glenoid fossa. This is a
depression where the head of the
humerus articulates with the
scapula. Label the various features of
the scapula and color in the regions
of the bone with different colors.
Locate as many of the features from
the various angles presented.

Answer Key: a. Acromion process,
b. Superior border, c. Coracoid process,
d. Glerioid fossa, e. Subscapular fossa,
f. Lateral border, g. Medial border,
h. Inferior angle, i. Supraspinous fossa,
j. Scapular spine, k. Infraspinous fossa

chapter Three
Skeletal System

ICAPLAir.. .

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CLAVICLE

The clavicle is a thin bone that stabilizes the shoulder joint in a lateral
position. It has a blunt end that articulates with the sternum (the sternal
end) and a flattened end that joins with the acromion process of the

scapula. This is called the acromial end. A small bump on the inferior
part of the clavicle has a ligament that attaches to the coracoid process of
the scapula. This bump is called the conoid tubercle. Label the clavicle
and color the ends and the conoid tubercle.

Superior view

Inferior view

Answer Key: a. Sternal end, b. Acromial end, c. Conoid tubercle

chapter Three
Skeletal System

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HUMERUS

The humerus has a proximal head
that fits into the glenoid fossa of the
scapula. Just at the edge of the head
is a rim known as the anatomical
neck. Below this neck are the greater
and lesser tubercle and the
depression between the two is the
intertubercular groove. Below these
is the surgical neck of the humerus.
The deltoid muscle attaches to the
humerus at the deltoid tuberosity
and the two expanded wing-like
processes at the distal end of the
humerus are the supracondylar
ridges. Inferior to these are the
medial and lateral epicondyles and
at the articulating ends of the
humerus are the lateral capitulum
and the medial trochlea. The
depression on the anterior surface of
the humerus into which the ulna fits
is called the coronoid fossa and the
posterior depression where the
elbow locks into the humerus is
called the olecranon fossa. Label the
figure and color in the specific parts
of the illustration.

Answer Key: a. Greater tubercle,
b. Head, c. Anatomical neck, d. Lesser
tubercle, e. Intertubercular groove,
f. Surgical neck, g. Deltoid tuberosity,
h. Supracondylar ridges, i. Lateral
epicondyle, j. Coronoid fossa,
k. Olecranon fossa, I. Medial epicondyle,
m. Capitulum, n. Trochlea

Anterior View

Posterior View

Chapter Three
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KAPLAN' , ^1

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FOREARM BONES

The radius has a circular head, a
radial tuberosity on the shaft
(where the biceps brachii muscle
attaches), and a distal styloid
process. At the distal end of the
radius is a depression where the ulna
joins with the radius. This is known
as the ulnar notch of the radius.

The ulna has a proximal olecranon
process, a coronoid process, and the
trochlear notch between the two.
Just distal to the coronoid process of
the ulna is the tuberosity of the
ulna, a projection where muscles
attach. The head of the ulna is distal
and it also has a styloid process. At
the proximal portion of the ulna is a
depression where the head of the
radius articulates with the ulna. This
depression is known as the radial
notch of the ulna.

When the two bones are joined you
can see where each fits into the
other. On the edge of each bone is
the interosseus margin. This is a
ridge where the interosseus
membrane connects the bones.

Answer Key: a. Olecranon process,
b. Trochlear notch, c. Coronoid process,
d. Radial notch, e. Tuberosity of the
ulna, f. Head, g. Radial tuberosity,
h. Interosseus margin, i. Ulnar notch,
j. Styloid process

chapter Three
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medical

HAND BONES

The hand consists of 27 bones
divided into three groups: the
carpals, the metacarpals, and the
phalanges. The thumb is known as
the poUex and is listed as the first
digit of the hand. The index finger is
the second digit and the fingers are
listed sequentially with the little
finger being the fifth digit. The
bones of the fingers are known as
phalanges and they are named
according to what digit they belong
and as being proximal, middle or
distal. Therefore the bone of tip of
the little finger is the distal phalanx
of the fifth digit while the bone in
the place where you would normally
wear a wedding ring is the proximal
phalanx of the fourth digit. Each
phalanx has a proximal base, a shaft,
and a distal head. The metacarpals
are the bones of the palm of the
hand. Each metacarpal also has a
proximal base, a shaft, and a distal
head. There are five metacarpals and
they are named for the phalanges
that extend from them. The first
metacarpal articulates with the
thumb. The carpals are the bones of
the wrist. There are eight carpal
bones in two rows. The bone under
the thumb is the trapezium. The one
medial to it is the trapezoid. The
capitate is found under the third
metacarpal and the hamate finishes
that row. Proximal to the trapezium
is the scaphoid, which joins with the
radius. The next bone in line is the
lunate, followed by the triquetrum,
and finally the little pisiform bone.
If you memorize the bones in this
sequence you can use a mnemonic
device to remember them. This
mnemonic is The Tom Cat Has
Shaken Loose To Prowl. The first
letter of the mnemonic represents
the first letter of the carpal bone.
Label the illustration and color all of
the phalanges one color. Color the
metacarpals another color and color
the carpal bones individual colors.
As you color the various illustrations
of the hand use the same color
scheme for the bones.

Right Hand,
Posterior View

Right Hand,
Anterior View

Answer Key: a. Phalanges, b. Head,
c. Shaft, d. Base, e. Hamate, f. Capitate,
g. Triquetrum, h. Lunate, i. Metacarpal,
j. Trapezoid, k. Trapezium, I. Scaphoid,
m. Pisiform

Right Hand,
Anterior View,
Carpals

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HIP

The hip bones are known as the os
coxae. Each os coxa is a result of the
fusion of three bones, the ilium, the
ischium, and the pubis. Label and
color in these three fused bones
using a different color for each area.
The two OS coxae, when joined
together by the pubic symphysis,
form the pelvis and it can be divided
into an upper false pelvis and a
lower true pelvis separated by the
pelvic brim. The anterior superior
iliac spine and the anterior inferior
iliac spine can be seen from the
front. The top ridge of the pelvis is
the niac crest. The large, inferior
hole is the obturator foramen and
the depression superior to it is the
acetabulum. Note the junction of
the sacrum and the ilium that forms
the sacroiliac joint. Label the
features of the anterior view and
color them in.

Answer Key: a. Iliac crest, b. Sacroiliac
joint, c Greater sciatic notch, d. Anterior
superior iliac spine, e. Anterior inferior
iliac spine, f. Acetabulum, g. Obturator
foramen, h. Pubic symphysis, i. False
pelvis, j. True pelvis, k. Ilium, I. Ischium,
m. Pubis

chapter Three
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medical

HIP (CONTINUED)

Lateral View

When seen from a lateral view,
several features are apparent in the
OS coxa. Locate the posterior
superior iliac spine and the
posterior inferior iliac spine along
with the greater sciatic notch, the
spine of the ischium, and the lesser
sciatic notch. The ischial tuberosity
is at the posterior, inferior edge of
the ischium. Just anterior to the
tuberosity is a strip of bone called
the ischial ramus that attaches to
the inferior pubic ramus. The body
of the pubis is the most anterior part
of the pubis and the superior pubic
ramus is the portion that forms part
of the acetabulum. Label and color
these features on the illustration.

MALE AND FEMALE PELVIS

Differences can be seen between the
male and female pelvis. The
subpubic angle in males is less than
90 degrees and the female angle is
greater than 90 degrees. The ihum in
males is more vertical than in a
pelvis of a woman who has had
children. A further distinction is
seen in the side view of a pelvis in
which the sciatic notch in the female
pelvis has a much wider angle than
in males. Color in the upper portion
of the ilium.

Answer Key: a. Iliac crest, b. Posterior
superior iliac spine, c. Posterior inferior
iliac spine, d. Greater sciatic notch,
6. Spine of the ischium, i Lesser sciatic
notch, g. Ischial tuberosity, h. ischial
ramus, i. Anterior superior iliac spine,
j. Anterior inferior iliac spine, k. Superior
pubic ramus, I. Inferior pubic ramus,
m. Obturator foramen, n. Acetabulum,
o. Iliac blade, p. Subpubic angle,
q. Male (less than ninety degrees),
r. Female (more than ninety degrees)

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LOWER EXTREMITY-
FEMUR/PATELLA

The lower extremity consists of the
femur of the thigh, the tibia and
fibula of the leg, and the tarsals,
metatarsals, and phalanges of the
foot. Locate these major regions of
the lower extremity and label them
on the diagram. Color these areas in
different colors on the illustration.

The femur seen from the anterior
view shows a proximal head and a
constricted neck. Two large
processes are distal to the neck.
These are the greater trochanter
and the lesser trochanter. There is a
raised section of bone between them
called the intertrochanteric line.
The main part of the bone is the
shaft and the lateral epicondyle and
medial epicondyle are the distal
expansions of the bone. The
posterior view of the femur has
additional features such as the
intertrochanteric ridge, the linea
aspera, and the lateral condyle and
the medial condyle. The femur is
bowed and this can be seen from a
lateral view as well as the placement
of the patella. The base of the patella
is superior and the apex is inferior.
Label the features of the femur and
patella and color in the various
parts.

Answer Key: a. Femur, b. Patella,

c. Tibia, d. Fibula, e. Tarsals,

f. Metatarsals, g. Phalanges, h. Greater

trochanter, i. Head, j. Neck,

k. Intertrochanteric line,

1. Intertrochanteric ridge, m. Lesser

trochanter, n. Linea aspera , o. Lateral

epicondyle, p. Lateral condyle, q. Medial

epicondyle, r. Medial condyle, s. Base of

patella, t Apex of patella

Posterior

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TIBIA /FIBULA

The tibia supports the weight of the
body and is the bone that articulates
with the femur. The fibula is more
slender and is a bone to which
muscles attach. The top of the tibia is
expanded into a triangular shape
with the medial tibial condyle and
lateral tibial condyle articulating
with the condyles of the femur. The
quadriceps femoris muscles attach to
the tibial tuberosity on the anterior
surface of the tibia just below the
condyles. The anterior tibial crest is
a large ridge that runs the length of
the bone. At the terminal portion of
the tibia is the medial malleolus.
This process, along with the lateral
malleolus of the fibula, join with the
talus of the foot. The head of the
fibula is proximal. It is a triangular
region with a pointed apex. Label
the tibia and fibula illustrations and
color in the various regions of the
bones.

Answer Key: a. Lateral tibial condyle,
b. Medial tibial condyle, c. Tibial
tuberosity, d. Apex, e. Head of fibula,
f. Anterior tibial crest, g. Shaft of tibia,
h. Shaft of fibula, i. Medial malleolus,
j. Lateral malleolus

Posterior

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LEFT FOOT

Color in the seven tarsal bones using
different colors for each bone. The
calcaneus is the heel bone and takes
the major weight of the body during
walking. The talus connects the foot
to the tibia and fibula forming the
ankle joint. The cuneiforms are so
called because they are wedge-
shaped bones and they form a
natural arch of bone in the foot.

Note that each of the metatarsals
and each of the phalanges has a
distal head, a shaft, and a proximal
base. Color all of the five metatarsals
the same color. The first metatarsal is
under the big toe and the fifth is
under the smallest toe. Color all of
the fourteen phalanges another
color. All of the proximal phalanges
are given the same letter in the
illustration as are the middle and
distal phalanges. Write proximal,
middle, or distal in the appropriate
space next to the toes. The big toe
(hallux) has two phalanges while the
other toes have three.

Answer Key:

1. Phalanges

2. Metatarsals

3. Tarsals

a. Distal phalanges,

b. Middle phalanges, c. Proximal
phalanges, d. Head, e. Shaft, f. Base,
g. First (medial) cuneiform, h. Second
(intermediate) cuneiform,

i. Third (lateral) cuneiform, j. Cuboid,
k. Navicular, I. Talus, m. Calcaneus

Chapter Four: Articulations

CLASSIFICATIONS OF
ARTICULATIONS

Articulations are the joints that
occur between bones. They can be
classified either according to
movement or by structure. Joints
can be immovable (synarthroses),
semimovable (amphiarthroses), or
freely movable (diarthroses). The
composition of joints can be
fibrous, cartilaginous, or synovial.

FIBROUS JOINTS

Fibrous joints are held together by
collagenous fibers, the same fibers
that make up tendons and ligaments.
These joints do not have a joint
cavity. Sutures are immovable
fibrous joints of the skull. Color in
the suture illustrated on the page. A
gomphosis is a fibrous joint in
which a round peg is held into a
socket. Gomphoses are represented
by the teeth held into the maxilla or
the mandible. Another fibrous joint
is the syndesmosis. This joint is
found between the distal radius and
ulna (or tibia and tlbula) and is
semimovable. Color in the various
fibrous joints.

Answer Key: a. Gomphosis
(peg suture), b. Tooth, c Alveolar
socket, d. Gingiva, e. Alveolar ridge,
f. Periodontal ligaments, g. Suture,
h. Sagittal suture, i. Syndesmosis,
j. Tibia, k. Fibula, I. Interosseous
membrane, m. Posterior tibiofibular
ligament, n. Transverse tibiofibular
ligament

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CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS

Cartilaginous joints are bones held
together by cartUage and do not
have a joint cavity. If the joint is held
together by hyaline cartilage it is
known as a synchondrosis. If the
cartilage is short then the joint is
immovable. An example of this kind
of joint is an epiphyseal plate. If the
cartilage is a little longer then the
joint is a semimovable joint. This is
represented by the sternal-rib
junction. A cartilaginous joint that
is composed of fibrocartUage is
known as a symphysis (symphyses
plural). These are semimovable
joints. Examples of symphyses are
the pubic symphysis and
intervertebral discs. Color the
cartilaginous joints. Use different
colors for the hyaline cartilage from
the fibrocartilage.

Answer Key: a. Synchondrosis,
b. Sternum, c. Costal cartilage,
d. Ribs, e. Femur, f. Epiphyseal plate,
g. Symphysis, h. Intervertebral disc,
i. Lumbar vertebra, j. Sacrum

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SYNOVIAL JOINTS, BURSA,
AND TENDON SHEATH

Synovial joints are complex joints
that are all freely movable. There are
variations with the joints but all
synovial joints consist of two bones
enclosed by a joint capsule,
articular cartilages, synovial
membranes that secrete synovial
fluid in the synovial cavity. Some
synovial joints have fibrocartilage
pads in the cavity called menisci
(meniscus singular). Color the
synovial joint and pay attention to
the general structure of the joint.
Color each part of the joint a
different color.

MODIFIED SYNOVIAL
STRUCTURES-BURSAE
AND TENDON SHEATHS

There are structures in the body that
consist of synovial membranes and
fibrous capsules. These are not
synovial joints but are associated
with joints. A bursa is one such
structure. It is a fluid-filled sac with
an internal synovial membrane that
cushions tendons as they pass over
bones. The bursa occurs between the
tendon and the bone. Another
structure is a tendon sheath. It also is
composed of a synovial membrane
and fibrous sheath and it encloses
tendons. The sheaths can provide
lubrication to the tendon so it does
not become irritated as it passes over
bones or next to other tendons.
Color in the layers of the bursa and
the tendon sheaths.

Answer Key: a. Bone, b. Joint capsule,

c. Synovial cavity (synovial fluid),

d. Meniscus, e. Articular cartilage,
f. Synovial membrane, g. Tendon
sheath, h, Achilles tendon,

i. Bursa, j. Calcaneus

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SPECIFIC SYNOVIAL
JOINTS

Synovial joints are classified by what
kind of motion they have. Gliding
joints move in one plane like two
sheets of glass sliding across one
another. Hinge joints have angular
movement like a door hinge.
Rotating (pivot) joints move like a
wheel of a car around an axle.
Condyloid (ellipsoidal) joints move
like hinges in two directions. In these
joints there is a convex surface and a
concave surface. Saddle joints have
two concave surfaces. They allow for
greater movement than condyloid
joints. Ball and socket joints allow
for the greatest range of movement
and are found in the shoulder and
hip. Color the illustrations of these
joints.

Answer Key: a. Superior articular
process, b. Vertebrae, c. Inferior articular
process, d. Gliding (plane), e. Humerus,
f Ulna, g. Hinge, h. Ulna, i. Radius,
j. Rotating

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SPECIFIC SYNOVIAL
JOINTS (CONTINUED)

Answer Key: a. Femur, b. Ball-and-
socket, c. Radius, d. Carpals,
e. Condyloid, f. Trapezium,
g. First metacarpal, h. Saddle

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SPECIFIC JOINTS

TEMPOROMANDIBULAR
JOINT

Some joints of the body warrant
special attention. The
temporomandibular joint or jaw
joint is both a gUding joint and a
hinge joint. The condyle of the
mandible articulates with the
mandibular fossa of the temporal
bone. An articular disc is found in
the joint that decreases the stress on
the joint. Ligaments (dense
connective tissue that joins bone to
bone) connect the mandible to the
temporal bone.

Answer Key. a. Temporal bone,
b, Coronoid process, c. Condyloid
process (cut), d. Angle of mandible,
e. MandibI,. f. Articular disc, g. Capsule,
h. Hinge, i. Hinge and glide

Jaws closed

Jaws opened slightly

Action:

Jaws opened widely
Actions:

Chapter Four
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HUMEROSCAPULARAND
AC ETABULO FEMORAL
JOINTS

The humeroscapular joint or

shoulder joint is a ball-and-socket
joint that connects the humerus to
the glenoid fossa of the scapula. The
joint is deepened by the glenoid
labrum which is a fibrocartilage
ring. There are numerous ligaments
that connect the scapula to the
humerus.

Another ball and socket joint is the
acetabulofemoral joint. It also has
an acetabular labrum and

numerous ligaments that joint the
femur to the hip.

Answer Key: a. Articular cartilage,
b. Glenoid labrum, c. Capsule,
d. Glenoid fossa, e. Humerus,
{. Scapula, g. Shoulder joint,
h. Femur, i. Acetabular labrum,
j. Hip joint

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TIBIOFEMORAL JOINT

The tibiofemoral joint is special in
humans because it is the largest joint
in the body and because it is
particularly vulnerable to injury. The
joint is stabilized by the patellar
tendon, the medial and lateral
collateral ligaments, the anterior
and posterior cruciate ligaments
and the medial and lateral menisci.
Label the structures in the anterior
view, with the patella in place and
with it reflected, and color them in.

Answer Key: a. Femur, b. Patella,

c. Fibular collateral ligament,

d. Patellar tendon, e. Tibial collateral
ligament, f. Fibula, g. Tibia,

h. Posterior cruciate ligament,
i. Anterior cruciate ligament,
j. Lateral meniscus,
k. Medial meniscus

chapter Four
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iiieclical 101

MOVEMENT AT JOINTS

There is a broad range of motion that occurs at joints. These motions
should be referenced with the body in anatomical position. Flexion of a
joint is a decrease in the joint angle from the body in anatomic position.
When the elbow is bent the forearm is flexed. Most flexion takes place in
a forward direction. The exception to this is the leg where flexion of the
leg results in the bending of the knee. Extension of the joint is when the
joint is returned to anatomic position. Hyperextension is a condition

where the joint is extended beyond anatomic position. Looking up at the
ceiling is hyperextension of the head.

Abduction occurs when the extremities or head are moved in the
coronal plane, laterally from the body. Adduction is the return of the
limbs to the body.

Rotation is the movement of part of the body in a circular pattern.
Lateral rotation is the movement of the body in a lateral direction and
medial rotation is in the opposite direction.

Answer Key: a. Hyperextension of the head, b. Flexion of the forearm,
f. Medial rotation of the thigh, g. Lateral rotation of the thigh

. Extension of the forearm, d. Abduction of the arm, e. Adduction of the arm.

Chapter Five: Nervous System I 103

OVERVIEW OF THE
NERVOUS SYSTEM

The body must react to the external
environment and the internal
environment and communicate
information between regions of the
body. This job is primarily the task
of the nervous system. Proper
response to the external
environment is critical for thermal
regulation, response to threats,
taking advantage of opportunities
such as food availability, and a host
of other stimuli. Response to the
internal environment is important
for sensing muscle tension, digestive
processes, maintenance of blood
pressure, and other functions.
Communication is important for
coordination of activities such as
walking, digestion, and maintenance
of blood pressure. The nervous
system also integrates information
from the environment, relates past
information to the present and
interprets new experiences. The
brain and the spinal cord make up
the central nervous system. The
nerves of the body make up the
peripheral nervous system. The
peripheral nervous system is divided
into the somatic nervous system
which consists of spinal nerves and
peripheral nerves that innervate the
outer regions of the body. It also
consists of the autonomic nervous
system. Label the parts of the
nervous system and color them in.

Answer Key: a. Central nervous system,
b. Brain, c. Spinal cord,

d. Peripheral nervous system,

e. Spinal nerves, f. Peripheral nerve

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NEURON

The nerve cell or neuron is the
functional cell in the nervous
system. Most electrical conduction
in the body is due to the
transmission of impulses by the
neuron. The neuron consists of
branched structures called
dendrites. The main portion of the
nerve cell is called the soma or nerve
cell body, and the elongated part of
the neuron is the axon. Two neurons
are connected by gaps called
synapses. The nerve cell body is the
metabolic center of the cell
consisting of a nucleus, an
endoplasmic reticulum called the
Nissl bodies, and a region where the
axon attaches called the axon
hillock. Color in the parts of the
neuron and label the parts.

Answer Key. a. Dendrites, b. Nerve cell

body (soma), c. Nissl bodies,

d. Axon hillock, e. Axon, f. Synapses

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NEUROGLIA

Neuroglia or glial cells have many
specialized functions in the nervous
system. The neurolemmocyte or
Schwann cell is found in the
peripheral nervous system. These
cells make up the myelin sheath that
Vi'raps around axons.

The other neuroglia are located in
the central nervous system.
Astrocytes are glial cells that, along
with the brain capillaries, are found
in the blood-brain barrier. They also
have a role in transferring nutrients
from the capillaries to the deeper
regions of the brain. Another glial
cell that functions as a barrier is the
ependymal cell. These cells are
located between the CNS and
cavities filled with cerebrospinal
fluid. Microglia are also found in
the CNS and their function is one of
protection. Microglia respond to
invasions of the nervous system and
they destroy microbes.

Oligodendrocytes are neuroglia that
produce myelination in the CNS.
Myelinated nerve fibers comprise
white matter. Myelinated fibers
conduct impulses faster than
unmyelinated fibers. White matter is
mostly associated with transmission
of neural impulses from one area to
another. Color each glial cell a
different color and write the name of
each cell in the space provided.

Answer Key: a. Astrocyte,

b. Ependymal cell, c. Microglial cell,

d. Oligodendrocyte,

e. Neurolemmocytes (Schwann cells),

f. Myelin sheath, g. Axon

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medical ^09

NEURON
SHAPES/SYIMAPSE

Neurons come in a few basic shapes.
The most common neuron in the
CNS is the multipolar neuron. It
consists of many dendrites and a
single axon. Bipolar neurons are not
very common. They are found in the
eye, in the nose, and in the ear and
consist of a singular dendrite and an
axon. Pseudo unipolar neurons
malce up the sensory nerves of the
body. They consist of a cluster of
dendrites at one end, a long axon
leading to the nerve cell body, and
another axon leaving the nerve cell
body at the same area.

Neurons connect to each other by
synapses. The neuron first carrying
the information is called the
presynaptic neuron. This neuron
has synaptic vesicles that release
neurotransmitters. The synaptic
deft is the space between the
neurons and the postsynaptic
neuron is the receiving neuron.
Label the various neurons and their
parts as well as the synapse between
the neurons.

Answer Key: a. Dendrites, b. Nerve cell
body, c. Axon, d. Multipolar neuron,
e. Bipolar neuron, f. Pseudounipoiar
neuron, g. Presynaptic neuron,
h. Postsynaptic neuron, i. Synaptic
vesicles, j. Synaptic cleft,
k. Neurotransmitter

Chapter Five
Nervous System

medical i ^ ^

NEURAL DEVELOPMENT

The nervous system develops early as
a neural groove. This groove folds in
on itself to become a neural tube as
early as four weeks after conception.
At about six weeks of age the
beginning cerebral hemispheres can
be seen as lateral enclosures from the
neural tube along with the
developing eye just posterior to the
hemispheres. This embryonic brain
is divided into three regions, the
prosencephalon or forebrain, the
mesencephalon or midbrain, and
the rhombencephalon or hindbrain.
Label the parts of the embryonic
brain and the adult derivatives of
that brain and color in the regions.

^-^ d.

Frontal section

Frontal section
6-week embryo

Lateral view
4-week embryo

Lateral view
6-week embryo

Answer Key: a. Prosencephalon,

b. Mesencephalon,

c. Rhombencephalon, d. Spinal cord,
e. Cerebral hemisphere, f. Developing
eye, g. Forebrain, h. Midbrain,

i. Hindbrain

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113

LATERAL ASPECT OF THE BRAIN

The most obvious features of a lateral view of the brain are the lobes of
the cerebrum and the cerebellum. The most anterior lobe is the frontal
lobe, which is responsible for intellect and abstract reasoning, among
other things. The division between the frontal lobe and the parietal lobe
is the central sulcus. Just anterior to the central sulcus is the precentral
gyrus, an area that sends motor impulses to muscles of the body. Just
posterior to the central sulcus is the postcentral gyrus. The postcentral

gyrus receives sensory information from the body. On the lateral aspect
of the brain is the lateral fissure and inferior to this is the temporal lobe
of the brain. Hearing, taste, smell, and the formation of memories all
have centers here. The most posterior part of the cerebrum is the
occipital lobe, which has visual interpretation areas. Label the regions
seen in a lateral view of the brain and the spinal cord. Color the
precentral and postcentral gyri and then color the lobes of the brain.
Shade in the cerebellum as well.

Answer Key: a. Temporal lobe, b. Lateral fissure, c Frontal lobe, d. Precentral gyrus,
e. Central sulcus, f. Postcentral gyrus, g. Parietal lobe, h. Occipital lobe, i. Cerebellum

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115

SUPERIOR ASPECT OF THE BRAIN

From the superior aspect, the two cerebral hemispheres are divided by
the longitudinal fissure. The frontal lobes are separated from the
parietal lobe by the central sulcus. The precentral gyrus (primary
motor cortex) and the postcentral gyrus (primary somatosensory

cortex) are on either side of the central sulcus. The gyri are the raised
areas of the cerebral cortex and the sulci are the shallow depressions of
the cerebral cortex. Together, these compose the convolutions of the
brain. Label and color the regions of the superior aspect of the brain.

Answer Key: a. Frontal lobe, b. Longitudinal fissure, c. Precentral gyrus, d. Central sulcus, e. Postcentral gyrus, f. Parietal lobe, g. Gyri, h. Occipital lobe, i. Sulci

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117

INFERIOR ASPECT OF THE BRAIN

When seen from an inferior view, many different features can be seen on
the brain. The frontal lobe is anterior and the temporal lobe and
cerebeUum are visible as well. The cerebellum has small folds called
folia. The medulla oblongata is attached to the spinal cord and the pons
is anterior to the medulla oblongata. Anterior to the pons are the
mammillary bodies which are responsible for the olfactory (smell)
reflex. The pituitary gland is next to the mammillary bodies. Anterior to

the pituitary is the optic chiasma, an x-shaped structure that has the
optic nerves anteriorly and the optic tracts posteriorly. The olfactory
tracts are seen in this view of the brain as two parallel structures on
either side of the longitudinal fissure. The blood vessels of the brain are
not visible in this illustration because they obstruct some of the neural
structures. They are covered in the cardiovascular section. The cranial
nerves will be covered in subsequent pages. Label the structures seen in
an inferior view and color them in.

Answer Key: a. Frontal lobe, b. Cranial nerves, c. Optic chiasma, d. Pituitar/, e. Temporal lobe, f. Mammillar/ body, g. Pons, h. Medulla oblongata, i. Cerebellum

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119

MIDSAGIHAL SECTION OF THE BRAIN

When the brain is sectioned in the midsagittal plane, many internal
features are visible. One of the most obvious features is the crescent-
shaped corpus callosum. Superficial to this is the cerebral hemisphere
with the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, and occipital lobe. Locate the
thalamus, hypothalamus, and mammillary body along with the optic
chiasma and the pituitary gland. The pineal gland is a small structure
at the posterior aspect of the thalamus. These structures are all part of
the forebrain. The midbrain is a small section with the cerebral
peduncles forming the inferior aspect of the midbrain and the

cerebral aqueduct as a narrow tube between the peduncles and the
corpora quadrigemina. The corpora consist of the superior coUiculi
which are responsible for visual reflexes and the inferior coUiculi which
are responsible for auditory reflexes. Posterior and inferior to the
midbrain is the hindbrain. It consists of the pons, the cerebellum and
the meduUa oblongata. The pons is a large, oval-shaped structure. The
cerebellum is visible with the arbor vitae (white matter of the
cerebellum) and a triangular space known as the fourth ventricle. The
medulla oblongata is the terminal part of the hindbrain. Label the
features of the midsagittal section of the brain and color them in.

Answer Key: a. Optic chiasma, b. Mammillar/ body, c. Hypothalamus, d. Frontal lobe, e. Thalamus, f. Corpus callosum, g. Pineal gland, h. Parietal lobe,
i. Superior colliculus, j. Cerebral aqueduct, k. Occipital lobe, I. Inferior colliculus, m. Cerebellum, n. Fourth ventricle, o. Medulla oblongata, p. Pons,
q. Cerebral peduncle, r. Pituitary

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121

CORONAL SECTION OF THE BRAIN

when the brain is sectioned in the coronal plane, the convolutions are
obvious. The gray matter is on the external aspect of the brain and the
white matter is internal. There are deep sections of gray matter in the
brain and these are known as basal nuclei. The external gray matter is
known as the cerebral cortex and is divided into the gyri (raised areas)

and sulci (depressed areas). The longitudinal fissure is the deep cleft
that separates the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebral hemispheres are
connected by the corpus callosum. Deep in the hemispheres are spaces
known as the lateral ventricles and the third ventricle is a space in the
middle part of the brain. On the sides of the third ventricle is the
thalamus and the floor of the third ventricle is the hypothalamus. The
pituitary is suspended from the hypothalamus by the infundibulum.

Answer Key: a. Longitudinal fissure, b. Cerebral cortex (gray matter), c.
f. Thalamus, g. Third ventricle, h. Basal nuclei

Corpus callosum, d. Lateral ventnde, e. White matter.

Chapter Five
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LIMBIC SYSTEM

The limbic system is deep in the cerebrum and performs numerous
functions. The system has an important role in memory and in emotions
(both positive and negative). The sense of smell enters the limbic system
and has interpretive centers there. The cingulate gyrus is a curved part
of the system and coordinates sensory input with emotions. The
hippocampus and amygdala are also parts of the limbic system. The

amygdala plays a role in both arousal and aversion and the hippocampus
is involved in memory formation. The hippocampal gyrus is part of the
temporal lobe and takes sensory information to the hippocampus.
Memory apparently enters the limbic system as damage to the limbic
system impairs memory formation. The storage of memory occurs in
other parts of the brain. The mammillary body receives olfactory inputs
and the fornix connects the mammillary body to the hippocampus.
Label and color the parts of the limbic system.

Answer Key: a. Cingulate gyrus, b. Fornix, c. Thalamus, d. Hippocampal gyrus, e. Hippocampus, f. Amygdala, g, Mammillary body, h. Olfactory bulb, i. Hypothalamus

Chapter Five
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FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF THE CEREBRUM

The cerebrum can be described not only physically but also in terms of
the functional areas. The functions of language are many and have
different areas of specialization. The motor speech area (Broca's area) is
typically on the left side of the frontal lobe and it involves the formation
of words. Coordination of the tongue and other parts of the vocal
apparatus occur here. Wernicke's area is located in the parieto-temporal
region and is involved in the syntax of speech. Wernicke's area allows for
the formation of sentence structure while Broca's area is involved in the
articulation of speech.

The primary motor cortex is located in the precentral gyrus and it
determines what body muscles to move. The motor association area is
just anterior to the primary motor cortex. The primary somatosensory

cortex receives sensory information from the body and has a sensory
association area just posterior to it. On the inferior part of the
postcentral gyrus is the primary gustatory cortex. Here is where the
sense of taste is interpreted.

The posterior part of the brain includes the visual association area. If
this area is damaged, then sight can be impaired or lost completely. The
angular gyrus is one of the areas associated with reading. The temporal
lobe includes the primary auditory cortex and the auditory association

area. Label these functional areas of the brain and color each one in a
different color. You may want to use different shades of colors for related
areas. For example, you may want to color the primary motor cortex
with one shade of green and the related motor association area with
another shade of green.

Answer Key: a. Motor association area, b. Primary motor cortex, c. Primary somatosensory cortex, d. Wernicke's area, e. Angular (reading) gyrus,
f. Visual area, g. Visual association, h. Auditory cortex, i. Motor speech

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VENTRICLES

The brain has hollow cavities enclosed in nervous tissue called ventricles.
Each cerebral hemisphere has a lateral ventricle and these lead into a
central third ventricle via the interventricular foramina. Cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF) is produced from blood capillaries called choroid plexuses in
the ventricles and this fluid flows slowly through the ventricles. There are
choroid plexuses in all of the ventricles of the brain. The CSF from the

lateral ventricles flows into the third ventricle. From the third ventricle
the CSF flows into the cerebral aqueduct to the fourth ventricle which
is located anterior to the cerebellum. From the fourth ventricle, CSF
exits to the space between the brain and the skull. CSF cushions the
brain from mechanical damage and 'floats' the brain in a fluid medium.
The CSF is returned to the cardiovascular system by venous sinuses.
Label the ventricles, foramina, and the mesencephalic aqueduct. Color in
the spaces after you have labeled them.

Answer Key: a. Lateral ventricle, b. Third ventricle, c. Cerebral aqueduct, d. Interventricular foramen, e. Fourth ventricle

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CEREBROSPINAL FLUID PATHWAY

Both the brain and spinal cord have layers that cover the nervous tissue.
These are known as the meninges. The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is
produced in the choroid plexuses and then exits to the outside of the
brain where it is absorbed in the venous sinus. Label and color the
structures and trace the flow of cerebrospinal fluid in the schematic from
its source to its reabsorption in the cardiovascular system.

Answer Key: a. Cerebrospinal fluid, b. Choroid plexus,
g. Fourth ventricle

. Venous sinus, d. Interventricular foramen, e. Third ventricle, f. Cerebral aqueduct.

Chapter Five
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SPINAL CORD

The spinal cord is attached to the
brain at the foramen magnum. It
expands just below this junction as
the cervical enlargement. This
enlargement is due to the increased
neural connections with the upper
extremities. Another increase in the
diameter of the cord is the lumbar
enlargement and it is due to the
neural connections with the lower
extremities. The end of the cord is
the conus mediUlaris and this is
found at the region of the first or
second lumbar vertebra. The
shortness of the spinal cord occurs
because it matures early and the
vertebral column continues to grow.
The neural fibers continue in the
vertebral canal as the Cauda equina,
a structure that resembles a horse's
tail. The cord is attached to the
coccyx by an extension of the pia
mater called the filum terminale.

Answer Key: a. Dura mater, b. Cervical
enlargement, c. Spinal nerves, d. Lumbar
enlargement, e. Conus medullaris,
f. Cauda equina, g. Filum terminale,
h. Coccygeal ligament

Chapter Five
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CRANIAL NERVES

The cranial nerves are those nerves that attach to the brain. They are
paired and are numbered (typically by Roman numerals) from anterior
to posterior. The olfactory nerve is a sensory nerve that receives the
sense of smell from the nose and transmits it to the brain. The optic
nerve takes visual impulses from the eye while the oculomotor nerve
mostly takes motor impulses to several muscles that move the eye. The
trochlear nerve takes motor impulses to the superior oblique muscle.
The trochlear nerve is so named because it innervates a muscle that
passes through a loop called the trochlea. The trigeminal nerve is a large
nerve located laterally in the pons. It is a mixed nerve (having both
sensory and motor functions) that has three branches. The ophthalmic
branch innervates the upper head while the maxillary branch innervates
the region around the maxilla. The mandibular branch innervates the

jaw. The abducens nerve is posterior to the trigeminal and is located
exiting the brain between the pons and the medulla oblongata. It is a
motor nerve to the lateral rectus muscle of the eye. On the anterior
portion of the medulla oblongata is the facial nerve, which is both a
sensory and motor nerve to the face and the tongue. The
vestibulocochlear nerve is a sensory nerve that receives impulses from
the ear. It picks up auditory stimuli as well as information about
equilibrium. The glossopharyngeal nerve is a nerve that carries both
sensory and motor impulses. It innervates the tongue and throat. A large
nerve on the side of the medulla oblongata is the vagus nerve. It is also a
mixed nerve carrying both sensory and motor impulses. The vagus nerve
innervates organs in the thoracic and abdominal regions. The accessory
nerve is inferior to the vagus nerve and is a motor nerve to the neck
muscles. The hypoglossal nerve is a motor nerve to the tongue. Label
the cranial nerves and color each pair a different color.

Answer Key: a. Olfactory, b. Optic, c. Oculomotor, d. Trochlear, e. Trigeminal, f Abducens, g. Facial, h. Vestibulocochlear, i. Glossopharyngeal,
J. Vagus, k. Accessory, I. Hypoglossal

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SPINAL CORD AND
SPINAL NERVES

When seen in cross section, the spinal
cord is composed of an internal
arrangement of gray matter
resembling a butterfly and an external
white matter. The two thin strips of
gray matter are the posterior gray
horns and the more rounded sections
are the anterior gray horns. The
lateral gray horns are found in the
thoracic and lumbar regions. The
hole in the middle of the spinal cord
is the central canal and the gray
matter that surrounds the central
canal is the gray commissure. The
spinal cord has two main depressions
in it, the posterior median sulcus
and the anterior median fissure.
Label the parts of the spinal cord and
color in the regions.

Attached to the spinal cord are the
spinal nerves that take impulses
from the spinal cord to the
peripheral nerves and impulses to
the spinal cord. The spinal nerves
are mixed nerves that pass through
the intervertebral foramina of the
vertebral column. The spinal nerve
splits into a dorsal root and a
ventral root. The dorsal root
ganglion is a swelling of the dorsal
root within its intervertebral
foramen. The dorsal root ganglion
contains the nerve cell bodies of the
sensory neurons coming from the
body. The ganglion leads to the
dorsal root which branches into the
rootlets. These branches carry
sensory information to the posterior
gray horn of the spinal cord. The
ventral root carries motor
information from the anterior gray
horn and innervates muscles.

Both the brain and spinal cord have
layers that cover the nervous tissue.
These are known as the meninges
and there are three layers. The
outermost layer is the dura mater
and it is a tough connective tissue
layer. Underneath this layer is the
arachnoid mater, which is so named
because it looks like a spider web. At
a deeper layer is the subarachnoid
space, which is filled with
cerebrospinal fluid. The deepest of
the layers is the pia mater and it is
located on the surface of the nervous
tissue. Label the meninges and the
structures associated with the spinal
cord in both the horizontal view and
the lateral view and color them in.

Answer Key: a. Pia mater, b. Ventral root, c. Dorsal root, d. Dorsal root ganglion, e. Posterior median sulcus, f. Arachnoid, g. Spinal nerve, h. Dura mater, i. Anterior gray horn,
j. Lateral gray horn, k. Central canal, I. Anterior median fissure, m. Posterior gray horn

chapter Five
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PLEXUSES AND THORACIC NERVES

There are 3 1 pairs of spinal nerves grouped by region of the vertebral
column. The cervical nerves are the most superior and there are eight
pairs of them. The first cervical nerves arise superior to the first cervical
vertebra. The thoracic nerves arise as twelve pairs. They lead to nerves
that innervate the muscles between the ribs and associated skin. There
are five pairs of lumbar nerves and five pairs of sacral nerves. The last
pair of spinal nerves is the coccygeal nerves.

A plexus is a web-like arrangement of nerves that is near the spinal cord
and gives rise to the terminal nerves. The most superior plexus is the

cervical plexus which arises from the first five cervical spinal nerves. The
brachial plexus receives input from the fifth through eighth cervical
nerves and the first pair of thoracic nerves. The lumbar plexus arises
from the first four pairs of lumbar nerves and the sacral plexus is
associated with the last two pairs of lumbar nerves and the first four
pairs of sacral nerves. Sometimes the lumbar and sacral plexuses are
grouped together as the lumbosacral plexus. Use one color to color in
the short segments of the spinal nerves and label the plexuses. Color
each plexus a different color.

Answer Key: a. Cervical plexus, b. Brachial plexus, c. Lumbar plexus, d. Sacral plexus, e. Cervical nerves, i Thoracic nerves, g. Lumbar nerves,
h. Sacral nerves, i. Coccygeal nerves

chapter Five
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NERVES OF CERVICAL
PLEXUS

The cervical plexus is a complex
interweaving of branches from the
first five pairs of cervical nerves. The
hypoglossal nerve enters this plexus
from the head. The ansa cervicalis is
an arched structure {ansa is Latin for
loop) that has many nerves
innervating the anterior throat
muscles. The major nerves of the
cervical plexus are the two phrenic
nerves that descend to the
diaphragm and stimulate the
diaphragm to contract. Label the
major features of the cervical plexus
and color the hypoglossal nerve, the
ansa cervicalis, and the phrenic
nerve.

Contributions to the accessory nerve
leave the cervical plexus from C2, 3,
and 4.

Nerve
roots:

Accessory nerve

Answer Key: a. CI , b. C2, c. C3, d. C4,
e. C5, f Hypoglossal nerve, g. Ansa
cervicalis, h. Phrenic nerve

Chapter Five
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NERVES OF BRACHIAL PLEXUS

The brachial plexus is associated with spinal nerves C4-8 and Tl . It leads
to major nerves of the shoulder and arm. The axillary nerve arises from
the brachial plexus and innervates the deltoid and the teres minor
muscles. It also receives stimulation from the skin of the shoulder and
lateral upper limb. The radial nerve innervates the triceps brachii muscle
and the extensors of the forearm and hand. The musculocutaneous
nerve innervates the anterior muscles of the arm (biceps brachii,

brachialis, and coracobrachialis) and the skin on the lateral side of the
forearm. The median nerve runs the length of the arm and forearm and
innervates the anterior muscles of the forearm and the muscles associated
with the thumb. The ulnar nerve passes along the posterior side of the
medial epicondyle of the humerus and gives that tingling sensation of the
"funny bone" when hit. It innervates the muscles of the medial side of the
anterior hand. Label these nerves and related structures and color them
in. Select a different color for each nerve.

Answer Key: a. C4, b. C5, c. C6, d. C7, e. C8, f. Tl , g. Axillary nerve, li. Musculocutaneous nerve, i. Radial nerve, j. Median nerve, k. Ulnar nerve, I. Vertebra C4

chapter Five
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NERVES OF LUMBAR PLEXUS

The lumbar plexus leads to nerves on the anterior and the medial aspect
of the thigh. A large femoral nerve arises from the lumbar plexus and
innervates the four muscles of the quadriceps femoris group on the
anterior thigh. The obturator nerve innervates the adductor muscles of
the medial thigh and the genitofemoral nerve is a sensory nerve that
receives impulses from the male scrotal sac and the labia majora in

females. The iliohypogastric nerve innervates the muscles of the
abdomen and the skin of the belly. The ilioinguinal nerve innervates the
same muscles as does the iliohypogastric nerve and it receives sensory
information from the base of the penis and the scrotum in males, and
from the labia majora in females. The lateral femoral cutaneous nerve
receives sensory information from the skin of the lateral thigh. Label
these nerves in the illustration and color them in with a different color.

Twelfth rib

Psoas major
muscle

Answer Key: a. T 12, b. Ll, c. 12., d. L3. e. L4, f. L5, g. Iliohypogastric nerve, h. Ilioinguinal nen/e, i. Lateral femoral cutaneous nerve, j. Femoral ner\/e,
k. Genitofemoral nerve, I. Obturator nerve

chapter Five
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NERVES OF SACRAL
PLEXUS

The sacral plexus has nerves that
provide genital innervation and also
has motor nerves to the posterior
hip, thigh, and anterior and posterior
leg. The pudendal nerve innervates
the penis and scrotum in males, the
clitoris, labia, and distal vagina in
females, and the muscles of the pelvic
floor in both sexes. The sacral plexus
also has the superior and inferior
gluteal nerves that innervate the
gluteal muscles and the tibial nerve
and the common fibular nerve.
These last two nerves are grouped
together as the sciatic nerve, a large
nerve of the posterior thigh. The
tibial nerve innervates the hamstring
muscles, the muscles of the calf, and
the muscles originating on the foot.
The common fibular nerve
innervates the short head of the
biceps femoris muscle, the muscles
on the lateral side of the leg and the
anterior surface of the leg.
Cutaneous branches innervate the
skin and muscular branches take
motor information to the muscles.
Label these nerves and color them in.

Answer Key: a. L4, b. L5, c. S 1 , d. S2,

e. S3, f. S4, g. S5, h. Coccygeal nerve,
i. Superior gluteal nerve, j. Inferior
gluteal nerve, k. Pudendal nerve,
I. Common fibular nerve, m. Tibial
nerve, n. Sciatic nerve, o. Cutaneous
branches, p. Muscular branches

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147

DERMATOMES

Dermatomes are regions of the skin innervated by nerves. The nerves
receive sensory inputs from the skin and take that information back to
the spinal cord. The dinical importance of dermatomes is the role they
play in assessing spinal cord damage. If there is a significant spinal cord

injury, then the regions below the level of the injury may not transmit
sensory signals to the brain. Lack of sensation in specific areas of the skin
provides a base of understanding of where the trauma may be located.
Color in the regions that are innervated by the cervical nerves with one
color and choose separate colors for the thoracic, lumbar, and sacral
innervation. Label the innervations of the dermatomes.

.^f^

Answer Key: a. C2, b. C5, c. C6, d. C7, e, Tl, f. T4, g. TIO, h. T12, i. C7, j. S5, k. LI, I. SI, m. L5

chapter Five
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AUTONOMIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM-SYMPATHETIC
DIVISION

The autonomic nervous system

(ANS) regulates automatic functions
of the human body. Changes in heart
rate, pupil dilation, digestive
functions, and blood flow to the
kidney are all controlled by the ANS.
There is some possibility of
conscious regulation of parts of the
ANS, but, for the most part, it
functions without conscious control.
There are two divisions of the
autonomic nervous system. The
resting state of the body is controlled
by the parasympathetic division.
Digestion, kidney filtration, erection
of the clitoris, erection of the penis,
and pupil constriction are some of
the functions of the parasympathetic
division. This division is also known
as the craniosacral division because
the nerves exit the central nervous
system (CNS) in these locations. The
cranial segments go to the eye,
salivary glands, heart, lung, digestive
system, and kidneys. The sacral
segments go to the lower digestive
tract, bladder, and reproductive
organs.

The sympathetic division controls
the "fight or flight" response of the
body, shutting down the digestive
functions, inhibiting erections,
shunting blood away from the
kidneys, and dilating the pupils. The
sympathetic division increases heart
rate, dilates capillaries in the lungs,
brain and muscle tissue, and
stimulates the adrenal glands. This
division is also known as the
thoracolumbar division because the
nerves exit the CNS in the thoracic
and lumbar regions of the spinal
cord. There are ganglia associated
with the sympathetic division and
these are located on either side of the
ventral portion of the vertebral
column. They are called the
sympathetic chain ganglia and the
neurons from the thoracolumbar
division synapse with nerve cells in
these ganglia.

Answer Key: a. Preganglionic,
b. Postganglionic, c Ganglia,
d. Synnpathetic trunk, e. Tl, f. L2

chapter Five
Nervous System

medical 1^1

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM-

PARASYM PATHETIC
DIVISION

The parasympathetic and
sympathetic divisions are
antagonistic to one another and
organs under the influence of the
ANS have dual innervation.
Typically, one division either inhibits
the organ from functioning or
causes an increase in activity in the
organ. This occurs due to the
difference in neurotransmitters
secreted by the separate divisions.
At the terminal end of the para-
sympathetic division, the
neurotransmitter is acetylcholine. At
the terminal end of the sympathetic
division, the neurotransmitter is
mostly norepinephrine.

The neurons leaving the CNS are
called preganglionic neurons. In the

case of the parasympathetic division,
the preganglionic neurons secrete
acetylcholine as neurotransmitters.
The ganglia of the parasympathetic
division are next to, or in, the organ
they innervate. The postganglionic
neurons secrete acetylcholine as
well. In the sympathetic division, the
preganglionic neurons secrete
acetylcholine in the sympathetic
chain ganglia. The postganglionic
neurons mostly secrete
norepinephrine to stimulate or
inhibit the organs they innervate.

Answer Key: a. Preganglionic,
b. Postganglionic, c. Ganglia,
d. Oculomotor 111, e. Facial VII,
f. Glossopharyngeal IX, g. Vagus X,
h. S2, i. S4

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153

SKIN RECEPTORS

There are several sense receptors in the skin. Some of these are involved
in determining mechanical vibration, some sense temperature, and some
sense pain. The receptors for mechanical vibration pick up light touch or
are involved in perception of pressure. There are hair receptors that
wrap around the hair follicles, and as the hair moves it stimulates the
neurons. Light touch is perceived by both Meissner's corpuscles and

Merkel's disks. These receptors are found in the superficial layers of the
skin (epidermis and upper dermis). In the deeper layers are the
Pacinian or lamellated corpuscles that pick up pressure. Pain receptors

are located throughout the skin and pick up variable stimuli including
extreme temperatures, acids, strong mechanical vibration, etc. Other
receptors in the skin are thermoreceptors that pick up the sensation of
smaller changes in temperature. Label these structures and color them
on the figure.

Answer Key: a. Meissner's corpuscles, b. Merkel's disks, c. Pain receptor, d. Hair receptors, e. Pacinian (lamellated) corpuscle, f. Epidermis, g. Dermis

Chapter Six
Sense Organs

medical ^ ^^

TONGUE

The tongue is the region where taste
is perceived. The tongue has regions
that are sensitive to different tastes
and these vary from person to
person. Not only do people taste
material in different places on the
tongue, but the sensitivity to taste is
different in individuals. Taste buds
are located on the sides of papillae of
the tongue. The lingual tonsils are
found on the posterior tongue and
the palatine tonsils are on the sides
of the oral cavity. Posterior and
inferior to the tongue is the
epiglottis. The papillae of the
tongue come in a few shapes. Vallate
papillae are shaped like mesas. They
have a flat top. FUiform papillae are
line-shaped while fungiform
papillae are shaped like mushrooms.
Label and color the papillae.

Color in the taste buds in the
illustration. They consist of
epithelial cells and nerve cells. Taste
is sensed if the material to be tasted
is in solution and comes into contact
with the taste pore. The taste buds
have taste hairs that extend into the
taste pore and connect with taste
cells that in turn synapse with
sensory nerve fibers that take the
sense of taste to the brain. Label the
figure and color in the various
structures.

e. -

Answer Key: a. Epiglottis, b. Palatine
tonsil, c. Lingual tonsil, d. Vallate papilla,
e. Fungiform papilla, i Filiform papillae,
g. Taste bud, h. Taste pore, i. Sensory
nerve fibers

Chapter Six
Sense Organs

medical ^^^

NOSE

The sense of smell is more complex
than the sense of taste. There are
only five primary tastes but many
different kinds of smells. The region
that is sensitive to smell is the
olfactory epitheliurn which is
located in the superior portion of
the nasal cavity. The olfactory
epithelium consists of elongated
epithelial cells that are supporting
ceils with neurons called olfactory
cells. These olfactory cells have
olfactory hairs on their surface.
Chemicals that are inhaled come
into contact with a mucous sheet
and are picked up by the olfactory
cells. The sensation of smell is
transmitted by the olfactory nerves
through the cribriform plate of the
ethmoid bone and they synapse in
the olfactory bulb at the base of the
frontal lobe of the brain.

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Answer Key: a. Olfactory bulb,

b. Olfactory filaments,

c. Olfactory epithelium

d. Nasal cavity, e. Olfactory cells,

f. Supporting cells, g. Cribriform plate,
h. Olfactory hairs

chapter Six
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KAPLAN- ,

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159

ANTERIOR SURFACE OF THE EYE AND
LACRIMAL APPARATUS

The eye is located in the orbit of the skull and has several external
features. Above the eye is the eyebrow. The corners of the eye have either
a lateral commissure or a medial commissure. Next to the medial
commissure is the caruncle, a small thickened tissue in the medial
corner of the eye. The outer surface of the eye is protected by the upper
and lower eyelids. The blink reflex rapidly closes the eyelids to keep dust
from hitting the outer surface of the eye. Label and color the sclera (the

white of the eye), iris (the colored part of the eye), pupil (the opening
that lets light into the back of the eye), and the eyehds. There is a
transparent extension of the sclera called the cornea and it covers the iris
and pupil.

The eyes are kept moist and are subject to potential bacterial infection.
Tears have antimicrobial properties and are formed by the lacrimal
gland. They contain digestive enzymes and wash microbes from the
surface of the eye. Tears drain from the eye into the lacrimal canals.
These canals lead into the nasolacrimal duct and then into the nasal
cavity.

Answer Key: a. Lacrimal gland, b. Upper eyelid, c. Sclera, d. Lacrimal canal, e. Medial commissure f. Nasal cavity, g. Lateral commissure, h. Pupil, i. Iris,
j. Lower eyelid, k. Caruncle, I. Nasolacrimal duct

chapter Six
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MUSCLES OF THE EYE

The lateral and superior views of the
eye show the major muscles
controlling the eye. The lateral
rectus is the muscle that lets you see
towards the side. The medial rectus
turns the eye toward the midline.
The superior rectus makes you look
up while the inferior rectus makes
you look down. The superior
oblique turns the eye inferiorly and
laterally while the inferior oblique
makes the eye turn superiorly and
laterally. The levator palpebrae
superioris elevates the eyelid. Label
and color the muscles of the eye and
the optic nerve where it exits the
tendinous ring.

Answer Key: a. Lateral rectus,

b. Superior rectus, c. Levator palpebrae

superioris, d. Superior oblique,

e. Inferior oblique, i. Inferior rectus,

g. Optic nerve, h. Medial rectus

Chapter Six
Sense Organs

medical ^^^

MEDIAN SECTION OF THE EYE

The cornea is the outermost part of the eye and it is responsible for most
of the light refraction in the eye (the bending of light rays). On the
periphery of the cornea is the sclera which helps maintain eye shape. The
space behind the cornea is the anterior cavity which is found in front of
the lens. It is composed of two smaller chambers, the anterior chamber
and the posterior chamber. The anterior chamber is between the cornea
and the iris, the part that determines eye color. The posterior chamber is
between the iris and the lens. The lens is made of protein and is held to
the wall of the eye by the suspensory ligaments. These ligaments are
pulled by the ciliary muscle on the wall of the eye. When the ligaments
tighten, the lens flattens and the eye focuses on distant objects. The fluid
in the anterior cavity is known as aqueous humor and it is released by the
ciliary body and reabsorbed in the scleral venous sinus.

Behind the lens is the posterior cavity. This cavity is filled with a jelly-
like material called vitreous humor. Light travels through this medium
to the back of the eye where it strikes the retina. The retina is the region
of the eye where light waves are converted to nerve impulses. The fovea
is a small area of the retina where there is a high concentration of cones
(cells that determine color and visual acuity.) Behind the retina is the
choroid, a darkened layer that absorbs light, making vision sharp during
the daytime. Behind this layer is the sclera, the white of the eye, where
muscles attach. At the posterior of the eye you can see the optic disk.
This is where the optic nerve takes visual impulses from the eye to the
brain. Color the median section of the eye after you have filled in the
appropriate labels.

Answer Key: a. Scleral venous sinus , b. Ciliary muscle, c Retina, d. Choroid, e. Fovea, f. Optic nerve, g. Optic disk, h. Sclera, i. Posterior chamber, j. Anterior chamber,
k. Cornea, I. Lens, m. Iris, n. Suspensory ligament, o. Anterior cavity, p. Posterior cavity, q. Vitreous humor

Chapter Six
Sense Organs

KAPLAN _H ■ ifp

medical i^^

POSTERIOR VIEW OF
THE EYE

In the posterior view of the eye you
can see the blood vessels in the
choroid that bring nutrients to the
back of the eye. Color these vessels.
They enter the eye at a region known
as the optic disk, which is the same
place where the optic nerve exits the
eye. This is the blind spot of the eye.
You should also label and color the
fovea centralis of the eye and the
macula lutea. The macula lutea
means "yellow body" while the fovea
centralis is the region of the eye with
a great number of photosensitive
cells.

Retina

The retina is the tunic or layer of the
eye that converts light energy into
nerve impulses. There are two main
types of photosensitive cells in the
retina. Rods are more numerous and
they determine motion and night
vision. There are many rods in the
eye but they are not very sensitive in
determining visual detail. This is
because many rods connect to one
neuron fiber. The other
photosensitive cells are cones. There
are fewer cones per neuron so they
produce a sharper visual image.
There are three types of cones that
have sensitivities to different
wavelengths of light. Label and color
the rods and cones in the retina.

The retina consists of three layers.
The photoreceptor layer contains
the rods and cones. This is at the
posterior layer of the retina. In front
of this is the bipolar layer that has
neurons that synapse with the rods
and cones. The layer closest to the
posterior cavity is the ganglionic
layer. The axons of the ganglion cells
conduct impulses from the
ganglionic layer along the span of
the eye and form the optic nerve.
Label these layers and color them in.

Answer Key: a. Macula lutea, b. Fovea
centralis, c. Blood vessels, d. Optic disk
e. Optic nerve, i Ganglionic layer,
g. Bipolar layer, h. Photoreceptor layer
i. Cone, j. Rod

Nerve impulses to brain

Light
path

Chapter Six
Sense Organs

medical ^^^

OVERVIEW OF EAR

The ear consists of three major regions, the outer ear, the middle ear
and the inner ear. The outer ear consists mainly of two parts, the auricle
(pinna), including the ear lobe and the external auditory canal. The
middle ear begins at the tympanic membrane (ear drum). Inside the

tympanic membrane is the tympanic cavity, another part of the middle
ear. Here you should label the ear ossicles and the auditory tube
(Eustachian tube). The inner ear consists of three major regions, the
cochlea, the vestibule, and the semicircular ducts. Use a different color
for each major region of the ear.

Answer Key: a. Auricle (pinna), b. External auditory canal, c. Ossicles, d. Inner ear, e. Ear lobe, f. Tympanic membrane, g. Auditory tube, h. External ear, i. Middle ear

Chapter Six
Sense Organs

meclical i69

MIDDLE EAR

The middle ear consists of the
tympanic cavity and structures in
that cavity. It is connected to the
nasopharynx by the auditory tube.
This tube allows for equalization of
pressure from the middle ear and the
external environment. The three ear
ossicles transfer sound from the
tympanic membrane to the oval
window of the inner ear. Label the
three ear ossicles, the malleus, incus,
and stapes, and color each one a
different color. Color the oval
window where the stapes connects
and use lighter colors for the
auditory tube and the tympanic
cavity.

INNER EAR

The inner ear consists of the
cochlea, the vestibule, and the
semicircular ducts. In Latin, the
name cochlea means snail shell and it
spirals like a snail. Its function is to
translate the mechanical vibrations
of sound into nerve impulses. The
cochlea has an oval window that
attaches to the stapes and a round
window that allows for changes in
pressure to occur in the inner ear.
Label the cochlea and color it in. The
vestibule has two parts, the utricle
and the saccule. These are involved
in equilibrium. They determine
static equilibrium whereby a person
can determine the position of the
body at rest. They also register
acceleration. Color each of these
parts of the vestibule a different
color. The semicircular ducts
respond to angular acceleration.
There are three semicircular ducts,
the posterior, the anterior, and the
lateral semicircular ducts. Color
each of the semicircular ducts a
different color.

Answer Key: a. Malleus, b. Incus,

c Stapes, d. Oval window, e. Tympanic

membrane, f. Tympanic cavity,

g. Auditory (Eustachian) tube,

h. Semicircular ducts, i. Anterior duct,

j. Posterior duct, k. Lateral duct,

I. Vestibule, m. Utricle, n. Saccule,

o. Round window, p. Cochlea

Chapter Six
Sense Organs

medical i^^

LABYRINTHS OF THE
INNER EAR

The outer part of the inner ear
consists of the bony labyrinth, an
outer encasement of bone. Inside of
this is a fluid called perilymph.
Inside of this is the membranous
labyrinth. It is filled with a fluid
called endolymph. Label these
structures and fluids.

a..

Cross Section of a
Semicircular Canal

Look at the cross section of a
semicircular duct. The outer part of
the canal is the bony labyrinth.
Perilymph is the fluid between the
bony labyrinth and the
membranous labyrinth. Inside the
membranous labyrinth is a fluid
called endolymph. Label these
structures and fluids.

Answer Key: a. Membranous labyrinth,

b. Semicircular ducts, c. Utricle,

d. Saccule, e. Cochlear duct,

f. Perilymph, g. Endolymph, h. Bony

labyrinth, i. Semicircular canals,

J. Vestibule, k. Cochlea,

I. Vestibulocochlear nerve

chapter Six
Sense Organs

meclical ^^^

CROSS SECTION OF
COCHLEA

Look at the cross section of cochlea.
Each coil of the cochlea has three
chambers and three membranes.
The upper chamber in the
illustration is the scala vestibuli. It is
connected to the oval window. The
vestibular membrane is the tissue
that forms the bottom of the scala
vestibuli. Below this is the scala
media that houses the spiral organ
(or the organ of Corti). The bottom
chamber is the scala tympani.
Between the scala tympani and the
scala media is the basilar
membrane. Label these features and
color each space (scala) a different
color.

Spiral Organ

The scala media is the region of the
cochlea involved in hearing. It is
bounded by the vestibular
membrane on top and the basUar
membrane on the bottom. Attached
to the basilar membrane are the hair
cells. These cells are attached to the
tectorial membrane which vibrates
when sound impulses enter the
cochlea. The tectorial membrane
tugs on the hair cells which converts
the sound impulse to a neural
impulse which travels by the
cochlear nerve to the brain where
hearing is interpreted. Label these
structures and color them in, each
with a different color.

Vestibulocochlear nerve

Answer Key: a. Scala vestibuli,
b. Vestibular membrane, c. Scala media,
d. Scala t/mpani, e. Basilar membrane,
f. Hair cell, g. Tectorial membrane

Chapter Seven: Endocrine System I 175

OVERVIEW OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system is a collection of glands and organs that secrete
hormones. This system is grouped according to the function that the
individual organs have. Some of these organs have two roles and are
called mixed organs. They secrete hormones and also perform other
functions such as digestion or secretion. The pancreas is a good example
of this. It secretes hormones (an endocrine function) that regulate blood

sugar levels and also secretes enzymes (exocrine secretions) that break
down material in the digestive tract. Hormones are released from
endocrine glands and typically travel through the body in blood vessels
and reach target areas that have cells receptive to the hormones. Locate
and label the pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, pancreas,
adrenal glands, testes, and ovaries. Color the organs in with different
colors for each organ.

Answer Key: a. Pineal gland, b. Pituitary gland, c. Thyroid gland, d. Adrenal glands, e. Pancreas, f. Ovary, g. Testis

chapter Seven
Endocrine System

KAPLAN.. , ,--

medical ■ ''

ORGANS OF THE HEAD

The pineal gland is a small gland
located posterior to the corpus
callosum in the brain. It has the
shape of a pine nut but is a little bit
smaller. It secretes the hormone
melatonin; melatonin levels increase
during the night and decrease
during the day.

The pituitary gland, or hypophysis,

is suspended from the brain by a
stalk called the infundibulum. The
pituitary sits in the hypophyseal
fossa which is a depression in the
sphenoid bone. The pituitary is a
complicated gland that has
numerous functions. The
adenohypophysis or anterior
pituitary originates from the oral
cavity during development and
consists of epithelium. It produces
several hormones which will be
discussed later. The anterior
pituitary has cells that pick up
histological stain differently. These
are acidophilic cells and basophilic
cells. The neurohypophysis or
posterior pituitary is derived from
the brain during development and
does not make its own hormones
but stores hormones produced in the
hypothalamus. Label the pineal
gland, the corpus callosum, and the
pituitary gland and color them in.
Label the parts of the pituitary and
use different colors for each part.

Optic chiasma

Answer Key: a. Pituitan/ gland
(hypophysis), b. Pineal gland, c. Corpus
callosum, d. Hypophyseal fossa,

e. Adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary),

f. Sphenoid bone, g. Infundibulum,
h. Neurohypophysis (posterior
pituitary), i. Basophilic cell

j. Acidophilic cell

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chapter Seven
Endocrine System

meclical ^^^

HORMONES SECRETED BY
THE PITUITARY AND THEIR
TARGET ORGANS

The adenohypophysis produces and
secretes many hormones that have
diverse target areas. Growth
hormone (GH) is released by the
pituitary and causes growth and
division of cells throughout the
body. Prolactin is more specific in
its function. Prolactin stimulates the
mammary glands to become
functional in milk production.
Follicle stimulating hormone
(FSH) and luteinizing hormone
(LH) are gonadotropins that cause
the ovaries and testes to release
hormones. Thyroid stimulating
hormone (TSH) causes the thyroid
gland to secrete hormones and
adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH) has an influence on the
adrenal cortex.

The posterior pituitary, or
neurohypophysis, stores and
secretes a hormone called oxytocin.
This hormone has many functions.
It causes milk letdown during
nursing and has multiple functions
as a neurotransmitter in the brain. It
is secreted during orgasm in the
female and is also released when the
infant is nursing. Oxytocin also has
an effect on kidney water balance.
The other hormone stored in the
neurohypophysis is antidiuretic
hormone or ADH. It is also known
as vasopressin. It causes absorption
of water from the collecting tubules
of the kidney decreasing the volume
of water in urine.

Answer Key: a. Adenohypophysis,
b. Thyroid stimulating hormone,
c Prolactin, d. Growth hormone,

e. Adrenocorticotropic hormone,

f. Luteinizing hormone, g. Follicle
stimulating hormone,

h. Neurohypophysis, i. Oxytocin,

j. Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin)

Chapter Seven
Endocrine System

meclical ^^^

THYROID GLAND

The thyroid gland is just inferior to
the thyroid cartilage of the larynx. It
has two main lobes and a small
connection between them called the
isthmus. The histology of the
thyroid is very distinctive. There are
cells called follicular cells forming a
sphere and these make up the
follicle. Inside the follicle is the
colloid where thyroid hormones are
stored. The parafollicular cells are
between the follicles. Label the main
parts of the thyroid gland, the
follicular cells, the parafollicular cells
and the colloid and color them in.

Hyoid bone

Thyroid cartilage

Trachea

Answer Key: a. Thyroid gland, b. Right
lobe, c. Isthmus, d. Left lobe, e. Colloid,
1 Follicular cells, g. Parafollicular cells

Chapter Seven
Endocrine System

medical ^^^

PARATHYROID GLANDS

There are typically four glands on
the posterior of the thyroid gland
and these are known as the
parathyroid glands. They secrete a
hormone called parathormone
which regulates calcium balance in
the blood. Parathormone increa,ses
blood calcium levels by causing
more absorption of calcium from
the digestive tract, increased
osteoclast activity in the bones, and
reabsorption of calcium from the
kidney. The principal or chief cells
secrete parathyroid hormone. The
oxyphilic cells are less common and
their function is poorly understood.
Label the parathyroids on the
posterior thyroid gland and color
them in.

Hyoid bone

Inferior constrictor muscle

Trachea

Esophagus

«®1 .©S^®

Answer Key: a. Thyroid gland,

b. Parathyroid glands, c. Principal (chief)

cells, d. Oxyphilic cells

chapter Seven
Endocrine Systenn

medical ^ ^^

PANCREAS

The pancreas is inferior to the
stomach and has several digestive
functions. These exocrine secretions
are initiated by the acinar cells. The
endocrine function of the pancreas
consists of the secretion of insulin,
glucagon, and somatostatin from the
pancreatic islets. These islets are
microscopic collections of cells that
have specialized cells for the
secretion of hormones. Insulin
lowers blood glucose levels while
glucagon does the reverse.
Somatostatin moderates some of the
pancreatic cells that have a role in
digestion. Label and color in the
pancreas and make the pancreatic
islets lighter than the acinar cells of
the pancreas.

Answer Key: a. Pancreas, b. Pancreatic
islets, c. Acinar cells (exocrine)

Gall bladder

Duodenum

Superior mesenteric artery & vein

Chapter Seven
Endocrine System

KAPLAN. , .

medical

187

ADRENAL GLANDS

The adrenal glands are positioned
superior to the kidneys and are
divided into the adrenal cortex and
the medulla. The cortex has three
layers. The most superficial layer is
the zona glomerulosa, which is deep
to the adrenal capsule and
responsible for the secretion of
mineralocorticoid hormones. The
next layer is the zona fasciculata
which mainly secretes
glucocorticoids, hormones
responsible for the breakdown of
proteins and lipids and the synthesis
of glucose. The zona reticularis is
the deepest layer of the cortex and it
secretes androgens (male sex
hormones) and small amounts of
estrogens (female sex hormones) in
both sexes. The most prevalent male
hormone is DHEA
(dehydroepiandrosterone) which is
responsible for the development of
the sex drive, pubic hair, and axillary
hair. The effects of DHEA are
minimized in males as the testes
secrete greater amounts of
testosterone. The adrenal medulla is
the deepest part of the adrenal gland
and it secretes epinephrine and
norepinephrine. Label and color the
adrenal glands and use a different
color for each layer of the cortex and
another for the medulla.

Answer Key: a. Adrenal glands,
b. Cortex, c. Medulla, d. Capsule,
e. Zona glomerulosa, f. Zona fasciculata,
g. Zona reticularis, h. Medulla

J A

you 01^ A ( Yc

Chapter Seven
Endocrine System

meclical i89

GONADS

The ovaries are a mixed gland
because they produce the oocytes
(egg cells) and also have an
endocrine function by producing
estrogens. Estrogens are a class of
female sex hormones that include
estradiol and progesterone. Estradiol
is produced in the granulosa cells of
the ovarian follicles. These follicles
surround the oocytes. Progesterone
is produced by the corpus luteum
after the oocyte has been ovulated.

The testes are also mixed glands. As
exocrine glands they produce sperm
cells and as endocrine glands the
interstitial cells produce
testosterone. Label and color the
interstitial cells and seminiferous
tubules in the microscopic view of
the testes.

Answer Key. a. Ovary, b. Granulosa
cells, c Ovarian follicles, d. Ova,
e. Corpus luteum, f. Interstitial cells,
g. Testis, h. Seminiferous tubules

Chapter Eight: Cardiovascular System | i9i

OVERVIEW OF THE
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

The cardiovascular system consists
of the heart as a pump, blood vessels
that take blood away from the heart
(arteries), and blood vessels that take
blood back to the heart (veins).
Locate the heart on the illustration
and color it in purple. Label the
common carotid artery and color it
in red. Arteries are typically colored
in red and veins are colored blue.
Label and color in the internal
jugular vein too. The internal
jugular vein takes blood to the
superior vena cava which takes
blood to the heart. Label and color
the aortic arch red and find the
continuation of the aorta that
travels down the left side of the
body, splits and takes blood to the
femoral artery. The vessel parallel to
the femoral artery is the femoral
vein and it should be colored blue.
The femoral vein takes blood to the
inferior vena cava before it goes to
the heart. Blood travels to the arm by
the brachial artery and
deoxygenated (color it blue) blood
travels to the lungs in the
pulmonary trunk.

Answer Key: a. Internal jugular vein,
b. Common carotid artery, c. Superior
vena cava, d. Brachial artery, e. Inferior
vena cava, f. Aortic arch, g. Pulmonary
trunk, h. Heart, i. Aorta, j. Femoral artery,
k. Fem.oral vein.

chapter Eight
Cardiovascular System

KAPLAN. . .

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193

CIRCULATION

The heart has four chambers
including the superior atria and the
inferior ventricles. There is a typical
coloring pattern for the
cardiovascular system. Vessels or
chambers that carry deoxygenated
blood are colored in blue while
vessels that carry oxygenated blood
are colored red. Label and color the
right atrium (blue), right ventricle
(blue), left atrium (red) and left
ventricle (red). Remember the heart
is in anatomical position so the right
atrium is on the left in the
illustration.

There are two major circulations in
the body. One goes to the lungs and
this is called the pulmonary
circulation. Deoxygenated blood
leaves the right ventricle of the heart
and travels through the pulmonary
artery (blue) to the lungs where the
blood is oxygenated. Blood returns
from the lungs to the left atrium of
the heart by the pulmonary veins
(red). The other main circulation in
the body is called the systemic
circulation where blood travels from
the left ventricle of the heart and
goes to the other regions of the body.
Arteries are vascular tubes that take
blood away from the heart while
veins are vessels that return blood to
the heart. Most arteries carry
oxygenated blood and most veins
carry deoxygenated blood but there
are a few exceptions.

The first vessel that leaves the heart
is the aorta which is part of the
arterial system. Color it red. Arteries
receive blood from the aorta and
take blood throughout the body.
They branch and become smaller
until they become arterioles. The
arterioles are the structures that
control blood pressure in the body.
As they get smaller they become
capillaries. The capillaries are the
site of exchange with the cells of the
body. Label and then color the
capillaries purple. Purple is a good
choice because the capillaries are the
interchange between the arteries
(red) and the veins (blue). On the
return flow the capillaries enlarge
and turn into venules, which take
blood to the veins. Color the venules
and remaining veins of the body
blue. Blood from the inferior
portion of the heart returns to the
heart by the inferior vena cava.

circulation:

head and arms .

oxygen-rich blood
oxygen-poor blood

oxygen-poor blood
oxygen-rich blood

Left lung

circulation

_ circulation:

internal organs and legs

Answer Key: a. Right atrium, b. Aorta, c. Left atrium, d. Right ventricle, e. Left ventricle, f. Systemic, g. Pulmonary,
h. Pulmonary artery, i. Pulmonary vein, i. Inferior vena cava, k. Vein, 1. Venule, m. Capillary, n. Arteriole, o. Artery

Chapter Eight
Cardiovascular System

nielbical i^^

BLOOD

Blood consists of plasma and formed
elements. The plasma is the fluid portion
of the blood and consists of water, proteins,
and dissolved materials such as oxygen,
carbon dioxide, electrolytes (ionic
particles) and other materials. Plasma
makes up about 5.S% of the blood volume.
Formed elements make up about 45% of
the blood volume and consist of
erythrocytes (red blood cells), letikocytes
(white blood cells) and thrombocytes
(platelets). Label and color in the red blood
cells with a light red color. Label the white
blood cells and color in the nucleus with
purple and the cytoplasm a light blue. Label
and color the thrombocytes purple. There
are about 200,00-450,00 thrombocytes per
cubic millimeter of blood. They assist the
body in clotting to prevent blood from
flowing out of small ruptures in blood
vessels.

There are about 5 million erythrocytes per
cubic millimeter of blood. The erythrocytes
do not have a nucleus and they appear like
a donut with a thin spot instead of the
donut hole. About a third of the weight of a
red blood cell is due to hemoglobin which
makes the cells red. Color in the surface
view and cross section of the red blood cell.
Note also the size of the thrombocyte.

There are about 7 thousand leukocytes per
cubic millimeter of blood. There are two
main types of leukocytes; granular
leukocytes and agranular leukocytes. The
granular leukocytes have cytoplasmic
granules that either stain pink, dark purple
or do not stain much at all. The granular
leukocytes that do not stain much at all are
called neutrophils because the granules are
neutral to the stains. They are the most
numerous of the leukocytes making up 60-
70% of the leukocytes. Neutrophils have a
three to five lobed nucleus. Color in the
cells by shading the cytoplasm light blue
and coloring in the nucleus purple.

The eosinophils are granular leukocytes
that have pink or orange staining granules.
The nucleus is generally two-lobed. Color
in the eosinophil by first coloring in the
purple nucleu.s and then adding orange to
the cytoplasm. Eosinophils make up about
3 percent of the white blood cells.

Basophils are a rare granular leukocyte in
that they make up less than one percent of
the white blood cells. The nucleus is S-
shaped but it is frequently difficult to see
because it is obscured by the dark staining
cytoplasmic granules. Label the basophil
and color in the granules a dark purple.

The two kinds of agranular leukocytes are
the lymphocytes and the monocytes. The
lymphocytes can be large or small and they
make up 20-30% of the leukocytes. The
cytoplasm is light blue and the nucleus is
purple. The nucleus of the lymphocyte is
dented or flattened. Lymphocytes come in
two kinds. B cells secrete antibodies
(antibody-mediated immunity) and T cells
which are involved in cell-mediated
immunity. Label and color the
lymphocytes.

The monocytes are large cells (about 3
times the size of a red blood cell) and they
have a strongly lobed nucleus. Some people
say this looks like a kidney bean or a
horseshoe. They represent only about -5%
of the leukocytes. Color in the nucleus with
a purple and the cytoplasm a light blue.

Granular

Agranular

Answer Key: a. Erythrocyte, b. thrombocyte,
c, leukocytes, d. basophil, e. eosinophil,
f. neutrophil, g, lynnphocyte, h. monocyte

Chapter Eight
Cardiovascular System

medical i^?

ANTERIOR SURFACE VIEW OF HEART

The apex of the heart is inferior and the base is superior. Label each
chamber of the heart and color them each a different color. Locate the
coronary arteries and their branches and color them in red. The right
coronary artery leads to the right marginal artery. The left coronary

artery takes blood to the anterior interventricular branch and the
circumflex branch. The cardiac veins can also be seen on the anterior
side. The great cardiac vein runs in the interventricular sulcus on the
anterior side. Label all of the major vessels entering and exiting the heart.

Answer Key: a. Aortic arch, b. Pulmonary trunk, c. Base of heart, d. Left atrium, e. Circumflex branch, i Anterior interventricular branch , g. Left coronary artery,
h. Great cardiac vein, i. Left ventricle, j. Apex of heart, k. Descending aorta, I. Inferior vena cava, m. Right ventricle, n. Right marginal artery, o. Right atrium,
p. Right coronary artery, q. Superior vena cava

chapter Eight
Cardiovascular System

meclical i^^

POSTERIOR SURFACE OF HEART

On the posterior side of the heart are additional arteries and veins. The
posterior interventricular artery occurs between the ventricles on the
posterior surface. It receives blood from the right coronary artery. The
middle cardiac vein runs the opposite direction and takes blood into the
coronary sinus. The small cardiac vein is also found on the posterior

surface of the heart and enters the coronary sinus from the opposite
direction. Label the posterior features of the heart and color the arteries
in red (except for the pulmonary arteries that carry deoxygenated
blood — they should be colored in blue). Color the veins in blue (except
for the pulmonary veins which should be colored in red).

Answer Key: a. Aortic arch, b. Inferior vena cava, c Right ventricle, d. Right atrium, e. Right coronary artery, f Superior vena cava,

g. Posterior interventricular artery, h. Middle cardiac vein, i. Coronary sinus, j. Pulmonary veins, k. Pulmonary arteries, I. Small cardiac vein

Chapter Eight
Cardiovascular System

KAPLAN.. -n,

medical ^^^

CORONAL SECTION OF HEART

The heart is located in a tough, fibrous sac known as the parietal
pericardium which has an outer fibrous layer and an inner serous layer.
If this sac is opened you can see a space called the pericardial cavity. The
heart is in this cavity. The outer surface of the heart is called the visceral
pericardium or the epicardium. Inside of this is the main portion of the
heart wall called the myocardium (made of cardiac muscle) and the
innermost layer of the heart is the endocardium.

Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium of the heart by three
vessels: the superior vena cava, the inferior vena cava and the coronary

sinus. The walls of the right atrium are thin-walled as they only have to
pump blood to the riglit ventricle. The blood in the right atrium is in
contact with the fossa ovalis which is a thin spot in the interatrial
septum. This thin spot is a remnant of a hole in the fetal heart know as

the foramen ovale. Blood in the right atrium flows through the cusps of
the tricuspid or right atrioventricular valve into the right ventricle.
The tricuspid valve is made of the three cusps, the chordae tendineae
and the papillary muscles that hold the chordae tendineae to the
ventricle wall. The ventricle wall is lined with trabeculae carneae that
act as struts along the edge of the wall. The wall between the ventricles is
known as the interventricular septum.

From the right ventricle, blood passes through the pulmonary
semilunar valve and into the pulmonary trunk where the blood goes to
the lungs. In the lungs the blood is oxygenated. From the lungs the blood
returns to the left atrium of the heart. Blood in the left atrium moves to
the left ventricle through the left atrioventricular valve or the
biscuspid valve. This valve has two cusps, chordae tendineae and
papillary muscles. When the left ventricle contracts, the blood moves
through the aortic semilunar valve and into the ascending aorta.

White arrows = oxygen-rich blood
Black arrows = oygen-poor blood

veins

: arteries

Answer Key: a. Pulmonary trunk, b. Pulmonary semilunar valve, c. feft atnum, e. Left atrioventricular valve, f. Aortric semilunar valve, g. Left ventricle, h. Endocardium,
i. Epicardium, j. Myocardium, k. Parietal pericardium, I. Fibrous layer, m. Serous layer, n. Interventricular septum, o. Trabeculae carneae, p. Inferior vena cava, q. Papillary
muscle, r. Right ventricle, s. Chordae tendineae, t Right atrioventricular valve, u. Opening of coronary sinus, v Fossa ovalis, w. Right atrium, x. Superior vena cava, y Aorta

chapter Eight
Cardiovascular System

meclical ^^^

SUPERIOR ASPECT OF THE HEART

This view of the heart is seen as if the atria and the major vessels have
been removed. You should be able to see all of the major valves of the
heart. The most anterior valve is the pulmonary semilunar valve that
occurs betvifeen the right ventricle and the pulmonary trunk. Label and
color this valve blue. Posterior to this is the aortic semilunar valve. It
occurs betvi'een the left ventricle and the aorta. Label this valve and color
it in red. Both of these valves prevent blood from returning to the

ventricles once they have finished contracting. On the right side of the
illustration (and on the right side of the heart) is the right
atrioventricular (or tricuspid) valve, so named because it has three flaps
or cusps. This valve occurs hetvi^een the right atrium and the right
ventricle. It prevents the blood from returning to the right atrium during
ventricular contraction. Label this valve and color it blue. On the left side
of the heart is the left atrioventricular (bicuspid) valve. It prevents blood
from moving back to the left atrium when the left ventricle contracts.

ECG-CONDUCTION PATHWAY

The heart has specialized cells that initiate an electrical impulse that
radiates throughout the heart. The cells are clustered in a particular area
knovifn as the sinoatrial node or the pacemaker. These cells produce a
depolarization that travels across the atria vifhich depolarize and then
contract. Depolarization is an electrical event while contraction is a
mechanical event. Between the wall of the right atrium and the right

ventricle is a lump of tissue known as the atrioventricular (AV) node.
Once the impulse reaches this area the AV node pauses a moment before
sending the impulse to the atrioventricular bundle. This bundle divides
into the bundle branches and then the impulse travels to the
conduction (Purkinje) fibers. These fibers reach the muscle of the
ventricles and stimulate them to contract. Color each of the components
of the conduction pathway a different color.

Answer Key: a. Pulmonary semilunar valve, b. Aortic semilunar valve, c. Left atrioventricular valve, d. Right atrioventricular valve, e. Sinoatrial node, f. Atrioventricular
bundle, g. Atrioventricular node, h. Bundle branches, i. Purkinje fibers

Chapter Eight
Cardiovascular System

me&ical ^^^

VESSELS OVERVIEW

The blood vessels have different
thickness due to the differences in
pressure that occur in them or their
function with respect to exchanging
nutrients with the cells. Arteries
have thick walls due to the higher
pressure found in them. Just as high
pressure hoses have thick walls so do
arteries. The outer layer of the artery
is the tunica externa (tunica
adventitia). You should locate the
tunica externa and color it in. The
middle layer of the artery, the tunica
media is the thickest layer and it is
made of smooth muscle and elastic
fibers. Color the tunica media red.
The innermost layer of the artery is
the tunica intima (tunica interna)
and it has a special elastic layer called
the lamina elastic interna. Color
this layer. The area in the artery
where the blood flows is called the
lumen.

Veins are thinner walled than
arteries and they do not have the
same elastic fibers in the tunica
media as arteries. Color the tunica
media of the veins red and select the
same colors as you did for the
arteries for the tunica externa and
the tunica interna. The tunica
interna of veins is folded into valves
that allow for a one-way flow of
blood through veins.

Capillaries are different from both
arteries and veins in that they are
composed of only simple squamous
epithelium (called endothelium).
The thin nature of capillaries allows
them to exchange nutrients, water,
carbon dioxide and oxygen with the
cells. Color in the endothelium of
the capillary with the same color
that you selected for the tunica
interna.

Answer Key: a. Vein, b. Artery, c.
Lumen, d. Tunica intima, e. Tunica
media, f. Tunica externa, g. Lamina
elastica interna, h. Lamina elastica
externa, i. Smooth muscle, j. Venule,
k. Endothelium, I, Arteriole, m. Capillary,
n. Venous valve

Open

o
"^

o
_o

Closed

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Ki^clical '07

ARTERY OVERVIEW

One of tlie ways to study arteries is to
draw them as if you were making a
street map. Begin with the heart and
draw the blood vessels that occur as
you take blood to the fingers, toes or
to a particular organ of the body.
Arteries are typically colored red and
you should select that color for this
illustration. Use the following artery
list and label the appropriate arteries
and color them in red. The
abbreviation for artery is a.

Ascending aorta
Aortic arch
Thoracic aorta
Abdominal aorta
Brachiocephalic trunk
Common carotid artery
Subclavian artery
Axillary artery
Brachial artery
Radial artery
Ulnar artery
Common iliac artery
Femoral artery
Anterior tibial artery
Fibular artery

Answer Key: a. Common carotid a.,
b. Brachiocephalic trunk, c. Ascending
aorta, d. Brachial a., e. Ulnar a., f. Radial
a., g. Subclavian a., h. Aortic arch,
i. Axillary a., j. Thoracic aorta, k.
Abdominal aorta, I. Common iliac a.,
m. Femoral a., n. Anterior tibial a.,
o. Fibular a.

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HEAD AND AORTIC
ARTERIES

Blood from the heart exits the
brachiocephalic artery and takes
two main pathways to the right side
of the head. One of these is the right
common carotid artery which exits
the brachiocephalic artery and then
splits into the ejrternal carotid
artery and the internal carotid
artery. The external carotid artery
has several branches, among them
the facial artery, the superficial
temporal artery, the maxillary
artery, and the occipital artery. The
internal carotid artery takes blood
through the carotid canal of the skull
and into the brain. The other main
pathway of blood to the right side of
the head is the vertebral artery
which arises from the subclavian
artery. The left side of the head has a
similar pathway except that the left
common carotid artery and the left
subclavian artery arise from the
aortic arch and not from the
brachiocephalic artery. Label these
vessels and color them in red.

Answer Key: a. Superficial temporal a.,
b. Occipital a., c. Internal carotid a.,
d. Vertebral a., e. Subclavian a.,
f. Brachiocephalic a., g. Thoracic aorta,
h. Facial a., i. Maxillary a., j. External
carotid a., k. Common carotid a.,
I. Aortic arch, m. Ascending aorta

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BRAIN ARTERIES

The brain is nourished by two main arterial conduits. The first of these is
the flow from the internal carotid arteries. Blood from the internal
carotid arteries comes from the neck and enters a circular pathway
known as the arterial circle (circle of Willis). The other conduit comes
from the vertebra and these are the vertebral arteries. These arteries
connect at a vessel called the basilar artery and it leads to the arterial

circle. The arterial circle consists of the anterior communicating
arteries and the posterior communicating arteries. From this circle
blood then moves into one of many arteries that feed the brain. The
cerebrum is fed by the anterior, middle and posterior cerebral arteries.

The cerebellum is fed by the cerebellar arteries. If there is a blockage in
any of these vessels then blood does not reach the affected part of the
brain and this produces a stroke. Color the arteries red and label the
illustration. Arteries are abbreviated flfl.

Cranial nerves

Posterior

Answer Key: a. Anterior cerebral a., b. Middle cerebral a., c. Internal carotid a., d. Posterior cerebral a., e. Basilar a., f. Anterior communicating a., g. Arterial circle,
h. Posterior communicating a., i. Cerebellar aa., j. Vertebral a.

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UPPER LIMB ARTERIES

The arteries of the upper limb
receive blood from the subclavian
artery which takes blood to the
axillary artery. Blood in the axillary
artery travels to the anterior scapula
by the subscapular artery, to the
external chest wall by the lateral
thoracic artery, to the upper
humeral region by the posterior
circumflex humeral artery, and to
the distal regions of the arm by the
brachial artery. The brachial artery
is the major artery of the arm and it
divides distally to form the radial
and ulnar arteries. The radial artery
is frequently palpated at the wrist to
determine the pulse rate. The radial
and ulnar arteries rejoin (called
collateral circulation) in the hand as
the superficial and deep palmar
arch arteries. These arteries take
blood to the fingers as digital
arteries. Label these blood vessels
and color them red.

Answer Key: a. Subclavian a., b. Axillary
a., c. Posterior circumflex humeral a.,
d. Brachial a., e. Radial a., f. Lateral
thoracic a,, g- Subscapular a. , h. Ulnar
a., i. Deep palmar arch, j. Superficial
palmar arch, k. Digital a.

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LOWER LIMB ARTERIES

Blood in the lower limb comes from
the branches of the iliac arteries.
Blood in the common iliac artery
flows into the internal iliac artery
and into the external iliac artery.
Once it passes by the inguinal
ligament (a connective tissue band
that stretches from the ihum to the
pubis) the external iliac artery
becomes the femoral artery. The
femoral artery takes blood down the
anterior thigh but there is a branch
called the deep femoral artery that
takes blood closer to the bone. The
femoral artery moves posteriorly to
become the popliteal artery and
branches of the popliteal artery
become the anterior and posterior
tibial arteries and the peroneal
(fibular) artery. The tibial arteries
take blood to the dorsal arcuate
artery, the dorsalis pedis artery,
and the dorsal metatarsal arteries
which take blood to the digital
arteries. Label the lower limb
arteries and color them in red.

Answer Key: a. Common iliac a.,
b. Internal iliac a., c. External iliac a.,
d. Femoral a., e. Deep femoral a.,
f. Popliteal a., g. Anterior tibial a.,
h. Posterior tibial a., i. Peroneal a.,
J. Dorsalis pedis a., k. Arcuate a.,
I. Dorsal metatarsal a.

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ABDOMINAL/THORACIC
ARTERIES

The aorta starts at the ascending
aorta and curves via the aortic arch.
The thoracic aorta is a portion of
the descending aorta. It has several
branches that take blood to most of
the ribs and intercostal muscles.
These are the posterior intercostal
arteries. Below the diaphragm the
descending aorta is known as the
abdominal aorta and it has several
branches. The first of these is the
celiac trunk and it branches to take
blood to the stomach, spleen and
liver. The next branch is the superior
mesenteric artery. Below this are
the renal arteries that take blood to
the kidneys. The gonadal arteries
are found inferior to the renal
arteries and they take blood to the
testes in males or the ovaries in
females. A single inferior
mesenteric artery is found below
the gonadal arteries. The aorta
terminates as it divides into the
common iliac arteries. Label these
vessels and color them in red.

a. -

Vena caval foramen
Esophageal hiatus
Aortic hiatus

Answer Key: a. Aortic arch,
b. Ascending aorta, c. Thoracic aorta,
d. Posterior intercostal arteries, e. Celiac
trunk, f. Superior mesenteric arter/,
g. Renal artery, h. Abdominal aorta,
I, Gonadal arter/, j. Inferior mesenteric
artery, k . Common iliac artery

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ARTERIES OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The celiac trunk splits into three branches, the common hepatic
artery, the left gastric artery and the splenic artery. There are other
branches to the stomach which have collateral circulation (two or more
arteries taking blood to one area). One of these is the right gastroepi-
ploic artery and another is the left gastroepiploic artery. Below the
celiac trunk is the superior mesenteric artery which takes blood to the

small intestine and to several of the colic arteries that supply blood to
the proximal portion of the large intestine. These are the middle colic
artery, the intestinal branches, the right colic artery and the ileocolic
artery. The inferior mesenteric artery takes blood to the distal portion
of the large intestine via the left colic artery, sigmoid artery and the
rectal artery.

Gall bladder

Spleen

Stomach

Descending colon

Branches of 1:

Answer Key: a. Celiac trunk, b. Common hepatic a., c. Left gastric a., d. Splenic a,, e. Right gastroepiploic a., f. Left gastroepiploic a., g. Superior mesenteric a., h.
IViiddle colic a., i. Intestinal branches, j. Right colic a., k. Ileocolic a., I. Inferior mesenteric a., m. Left colic a., n. Sigmoid a., o. Superior rectal a.

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MALE AND FEMALE
PELVIC ARTERIES

The common iliac artery takes
blood to the external Uiac artery
and the internal iliac artery that
takes blood to the pelvis. In females,
branches of the internal iUac artery
take blood to the inner pelvis. The
vesical arteries takes blood to the
bladder, the uterine arteries take
blood to the uterus, the vaginal
arteries feed the vagina, the rectal
arteries feed the rectum, and the
sacral arteries go to the sacrum. The
pudendal artery takes blood to the
external regions where it supplies
blood to the pelvic floor, the labia
majora and minora and the cUtoris.

In males the internal iliac artery takes
blood to the bladder, rectum,
sacrum, the prostate, and seminal
vesicles on the inside. The pudendal
artery takes blood to the scrotum,
penis and external pelvic floor. In
both sexes the obturator artery takes
blood from the internal iUac artery to
the medial thigh while the gluteal
arteries take blood to the muscles
posterior to the pelvic cavity.

Female

Answer Key: a. Common iliac a.,
b. Intemal iliac a., c External iliac a.,
d. Obturator a., e. Superior vesical aa.,
f. Lateral sacral a., g. Gluteal aa.,
h. Superior gluteal a., i. Inferior gluteal
a., j. Uterine a., k. Pudendal a.,
I. Middle rectal a., m. Vaginal a.,
n. Inferior vesical a.

Male

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VEINS

Veins are blood vessels that return
blood to the heart. They are charac-
teristically colored in blue on illus-
trations. The deep veins typically
take the name of the artery next to
them or the name of the organ that
provides them with blood.
Therefore the femoral vein runs
next to the femoral artery and the
splenic vein receives blood from the
spleen. Some veins have names
unique to them and these are typi-
cally the superficial veins. Use the
following list and label the major
veins of the body and color them
blue.

Cephalic vein
Basilic vein
Radial veins
Ulnar veins
Brachial vein
Axillary vein
Subclavian vein
Brachiocephalic vein
Superior vena cava
Vertebral vein
Internal jugular vein
External jugular vein
Femoral vein
Great saphenous vein
Small saphenous vein
External iliac vein
Internal iliac vein
Common iliac vein
Inferior vena cava
Renal veins
Gonadal veins

Answer Key: a. Internal jugular vein,
b. Brachiocephalic vein, c. Superior
vena cava, d. Brachial veins, e. Ulnar
veins, f. Radial veins, g. Internal iliac
vein, h. External iliac vein, i. Femoral
vein, ). Vertebral vein, k. External jugular
vein, I. Subclavian vein, m. Axillary vein,
n. Cephalic vein, o. Basilic vein,
p. Inferior vena cava, q. Renal vein,
r. Gonadal vein, s. Common iliac vein,
t. Great saphenous vein, u. Small
saphenous vein

Deep veins:

Superficial veins:

g-
h.

Deep vein:

Superficial veins:

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HEAD/NECK VEINS

Superior Vena Cava Veins

The drainage of the head occurs by the jugular veins or the vertebral
veins. Some of the blood coming from the brain travels down the
superior sagittal sinus and through the large internal jugular veins.

These veins take blood down both sides of the neck and enter the

brachiocephalic veins. The external portion of the head is drained by
several veins. The facial vein and the maxillary vein take blood to the
internal jugular vein while the superficial temporal vein and the
posterior auricular vein take blood to the external jugular vein which
then flows into the subclavian vein before reaching the brachiocephalic
vein.

Answer Key: a. Sagittal sinus, b. Superficial temporal v., c. Posterior auricular v., d. External jugular v., e. Vertebral v. (plexus), f. Subclavian v., g. Maxillary v., h. Facial v.,
i. Internal jugular v., j. Brachiocephalic v., k. Superior vena cava

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UPPER LIMB VEINS

The veins of the upper limb are
somewhat variable and have many
cross connections between them but
they can be divided into the deep
veins and the superficial veins. The
deep veins of the upper limb fre-
quently form a meshwork around
the arteries (venae comitantes)
which allows for a great amount of
heat transfer. Cool blood from the
extremities is warmed by the arterial
blood flowing in a counter current.
Blood in the fingers returns to the
forearm by the digital veins and
then the superficial and deep pal-
mar arch veins. The deep veins of
the upper limb are the radial veins,
the ulnar veins, and the brachial
veins. The brachial veins lead to the
axillary vein which takes blood to
the subclavian vein. The superficial
veins of the upper limb are the
basilic vein, found on the medial
aspect of the forearm and arm, the
median antebrachial vein, on the
anterior aspect of the forearm, the
cephalic vein, found on the lateral
aspect of the forearm and arm and a
small vein that connects the basilic
vein with the cephalic vein called
the median cubital vein. This vein
is used frequently to withdraw
blood. Label the veins of the upper
hmb and color them in blue.

Answer Key: a. Subclavian v.,

b. Cephalic v., c. Axillary v., d. Radial vv.,

e. Median antebrachial v., f. Deep

palmar arch, g. Digital vv., h. Basilic v.,

i. Brachial vv., j. Median cubital v,

k. Ulnar vv., I. Superficial palmar arch v.

Superficial veins
0= Deep veins

Artery
^ Superficial vein

Venae comitantes

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LOWER LIMB VEINS

Blood in the toes returns by the
digital veins. These veins take blood
to the dorsal metatarsal veins and
the dorsal venous arch veins. On the
underside of the foot are the plantar
veins. Blood moves up the leg by the
posterior and anterior tibial veins
and the great and small saphenous
veins. The anterior and posterior
tibial veins join together to form the
popliteal vein posterior to the knee.
The small saphenous vein joins the
popliteal vein taking blood to the
femoral vein. The great saphenous
vein begins around the medial
malleolus and runs the entire length
of the medial lower limb when it
enters into the femoral veins. Once
the femoral vein crosses the inguinal
ligament it becomes the external
iliac vein.

Answer Key: a. External iliac v.,
b. Femoral v., c. Deep femoral v.,
d. Anterior tibial v., e. Dorsal venous
arch, f. Dorsal metatarsal v., g. Digital v.,
h. Great saphenous v., i. Popliteal v.,
j. Small saphenous v., k. Posterior
tibial v., I. Plantar v.

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HEPATIC PORTAL VEINS,
TRUNK VEINS

Most of the blood of the body
returns to the heart by capillaries
flowing into venules and finally into
veins before reaching the heart. In a
portal system blood moves from
one capillary system to another
capillary system before reaching the
heart. The hepatic portal system
takes blood from the capillary beds
of many of the abdominal organs
and carries it to the liver where
metabolic processing takes place.
The hepatic portal vein receives
blood from various veins including
the splenic vein, the gastroepiploic
vein, the left gastric vein and the
colic veins which take blood to the
superior mesenteric and inferior
mesenteric veins. Once the blood is
processed in the liver it enters the
systemic circulation by the hepatic
veins.

The return of blood from other parts
of the pelvic and abdominal cavities
does not go through the hepatic
portal system but enters the inferior
vena cava. The renal veins take
blood from the kidneys to the
inferior vena cava. The gonadal
veins take blood from the testes or
the ovaries. The left gonadal vein
enters the left renal vein while the
right gonadal vein enters the
inferior vena cava. The intercostal
veins take blood to the hemiazygos
and the azygos veins.

Outline of heart

Answer Key: a. Azygos v., b. Inferior
vena cava, c Hepatic vv, d. Renal v.,
e. Posterior intercostal vv.,
i Hemiazygos v., g. Gonadal v.,
h. Hepatic portal v, i. Superior
mesenteric v, j. Right colic v.,
k. Gastric v, I. Splenic v,
m. Gastroepiploic v,
n. Inferior mesenteric v.

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FETAL CIRCULATION

The significant difference in fetal circulation from adult circulation lies
in the fact that the lungs are non-functional in the fetus. The source of
oxygen for the fetus is the placenta where maternal blood carries oxygen
and nutrients to the fetus. Blood from the placenta travels to the fetus by
the umbilical vein. It is called a vein because it carries blood to the fetal
heart. The blood flowing in the umbilical vein is oxygenated blood
which is not typical of most blood that occurs in veins. From the
umbilical vein the blood passes through a small shunt vessel known as
the ductus venosus and enters the inferior vena cava where it mixes
with blood returning from the lower extremities. The fetus receives a
mixture of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.

This mixed blood reaches the fetal heart and begins the first of two
bypass routes. Since the lungs do not oxygenate blood in the fetus they
do not require the entire blood volume to pass through them. The first
bypass route is through the foramen ovale, a hole between the right and
left atria of the heart. Another bypass route occurs as the blood enters
the pulmonary trunk. Blood moves from the pulmonary trunk through
the ductus arteriosus and into the aortic arch.

Blood traveling back to the fetus is not fully deoxygenated but is a
mixture of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. This blood flows from
the internal iliac arteries of the fetus and into the umbilical arteries.

From the umbilical arteries the blood flows into the placenta.

Answer Key: a, Superior vena cava, b. Right atrium, c. Foramen ovale, d. Placenta, e. Ductus arteriosus, f. Right ventricle, g. Ductus venosus, h. Inferior vena cava,
i. Umbilical v, j. Abdominal aorta, k. Internal iliac a., I. Umbilical aa.

Chapter Nine: The Lymph System | 235

OVERVIEW OF THE LYMPH
SYSTEM

The lymph system is composed of
lymphatics or lymph vessels and

glands and is a system with many
functions. Fluid that bathes the cells
(interstitial fluid) is returned to the
cardiovascular system, in part, by the
lymph system. This fluid, called
lymph, passes through lymph nodes
where impurities and foreign
microbes are removed. Other parts
of the lymph system include lymph
organs such as the spleen. These
organs produce cells that protect the
body from foreign compounds, and
have other immune functions such
as cleansing the body of cellular
debris and removing old blood cells
from circulation.

The main exchange of fluid from the
cardiovascular system occurs at the
capillary level. Arterioles carry
blood to the capillary bed and the
venules return blood from the
capillaries. About ninety percent of
the fluid that flows from the blood
capillaries to the interstices around
the cells is reabsorbed by the
capillaries. The remaining ten
percent of the interstitial fluid enters
the lymph system by lymph
capillaries and travels through
lymphatics. These lymph capillaries
have one-way valves that allow the
fluid to enter the lymphatics and not
return to the cells. Once the fluid
enters the lymphatic system it is
called lymph. The lymph travels
through the lymphatics and some of
these merge into a large vessel in the
abdomen called the cisterna chyli.
This vessel, in turn, takes lymph to
the thoracic duct that returns the
lymph to the cardiovascular system.
Label the structures of the lymph
system and color them in.

Answer Key: a. Thoracic duct,
b. Spleen, c. Cisterna chili,
d. Lymphatics, e. Lymph nodes,
f. Venule, g. Arteriole, h. Lymph
capillaries

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RETURN DRAINAGE

One of the functions of the lymph
system is to return tissue fluid to the
cardiovascular system.

The right lymphatic duct returns
blood to the right internal jugular

vein. This occurs at the junction
where the right subclavian vein and

the right internal jugular vein reach
the right brachiocephalic vein. The
thoracic duct enters the
cardiovascular system at the point
where the left internal jugular vein
and the left subclavian vein enter
the left brachiocephalic vein. Lymph
nodes occur along the path and
cleanse the lymph. The thymus is a
lymph organ that occurs near these
drainage areas. The thoracic duct
receives lymph from most of the
body while the right lymphatic duct
receives lymph from the right side of
the head, the right pectoral region,
shoulder and right upper extremity.
Label and color in the veins of the
neck and upper thorax and label the
lymphatic vessels that return fluid to
the cardiovascular system.

Answer Key: a. Right internal jugular
vein, b. Right lymphatic duct, c. Right
subclavian vein, d. Lymph nodes, e. Left
internal jugular vein, f. Thoracic duct,
g. Left subclavian vein, h. Thymus,
i. Right drainage area, j. Left drainage
area

J I

3.VV^

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TONSILS

The tonsils are lymph organs that
provide protection against microbes
entering the mouth and nose. Tonsils
are regions of mucous membrane
with lymph tissue. The pharyngeal
tonsils are located in the naso-
pharynx (a region posterior to the
nasal cavity and superior to the oral
cavity) and they provide some
protection from inhaled material.
The lingual tonsils are on the
posterior part of the tongue and,
along with the palatine tonsils on
the side of the oral cavity, they
provide protection from material
that enters the body by mouth. These
tonsils cluster to form a tonsillar
(Waldeyer's) ring that protects the
body from microbial invasion. Label
the tonsils and associated structures
and color them in.

(behind soft palate)
Uvula

Answer Key: a. Pharyngeal tonsil,
b. Tongue, c. Palatine tonsil, d. Lingual
tonsil, e. Tonsillar (Waldeyer's) ring

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SPLEEN

The spleen is on the left side of the
body and is close to the pancreas.
The splenic artery takes blood to the
spleen and the splenic vein takes
blood from the spleen. The spleen is
important in removing aging red
blood cells from circulation and
recycling them. The spleen has both
red pulp and white pulp. The red
pulp is involved in red blood cell
removal and the white pulp
produces lymphocytes. The spleen
has splenic cords that have
lymphocytes along their length.
Label the parts of the spleen and
associated structures and color them
in. Select red for the red pulp and
leave the white pulp white.

Ninth rib

Answer Key: a. Spleen, b. Splenic
artery, c Splenic vein, d. Red pulp,
e. Arteriole, f. Sinuses, g. White pulp

f..

(filled with red blood cells)

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LYMPH NODES

Lymph nodes are found typically in clusters along the route that
lymphatics take as lymph is returned to the cardiovascular system.
Afferent lymphatics bring lymph to the node and efferent lymphatics

receive lymph from the node.

Lymph nodes consist of an outer cortex and an inner medulla. The cortex
produces lymphocytes and the medulla has medullary cords that have
clusters of lymph cells that cleanse the lymph passing through the nodes.
Label the lymphatics and parts of the lymph node and color them in.

Answer Key: a. Efferent lymphatics, b. Capsule, c. Cortex, d. Medulla with medullary cords, e. Afferent lymphatics, f Blood vessels

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LACTEALS

The lymph system has a special
function in digestion. Not only are
there lymph nodes along parts of the
digestive tract that protect the body
from possible invasion from ingested
microbes, but fatty acids from
digestion are absorbed by special
vessels called lacteals. Lacteals are
found in the small intestine in
finger-like structures called villi.
These villi also contain capillaries
which absorb sugars and amino
acids. The lacteals absorb the fatty
acids, products from the digestion of
lipids in the diet. They travel
through the lymphatic vessels to the
cardiovascular system. Label the
villi, capillaries, and lacteals and
color them in.

Answer Key: a. Small intestine,
b. Lymphatic vessel, c. Villi,
d. Capillaries, e. Lacteal

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TWO TYPES OF IMMUNITY

The body can control against foreign particles either by cell-mediated
immunity or antibody mediated immunity. In antibody mediated
immunity, foreign particles called antigens (typically proteins or
carbohydrates on the surface of invading cells) stimulate B cells to
become plasma cells and memory B cells. The plasma cells produce
antibodies and these react with the antigens stimulating their
destruction.

In cell-mediated immunity, the reacting cells are called helper T cells
and they cause the activation of and the differentiation of other T cells
into memory T cells and effector or cytotoxic T cells. The cytotoxic T
cells can recognize foreign cells and destroy them. The steps in immune
reactions are much more complex than this but this description provides
a general understanding of the process. Fill in the illustration using the
terms provided. Color the different cells and antibodies using one type
of color (various types of orange for B cells) and another for T cells.

Antibody-mediated immunity

Cell-mediated immunity

Antigen-bearing cell

Destroyed cell

Answer Key: a. Antigens, b. B cell, c. Memory B cell, d. Antibodies, e. Plasma cell, f. Helper T cell, g. Activated T cell, h. Effector (Cytotoxic) T cell, i. Memory T cell

Chapter Ten: Respiratory System I 249

OVERVIEW OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The respiratory system consists of
the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx,
larynx, trachea, lungs, the linings of
the lungs (pleura) and the
respiratory muscles, such as the
diaphragm and intercostal muscles.
Label the respiratory figure and
color in the major parts of the
system.

Answer Key: a. Pharynx, b. Trachea,
c. Right lung, d. Pleura, e. Nasal cavity,
f. Larynx, g. Left lung, h. Diaphragm

chapter Ten
Respiratory System

medical ^^^

LARYNX, TRACHEA, AND LUNGS OVERVIEW

Two main cartilages of the larynx can be seen from an anterior view. The
thyroid cartUage is superior to the cricoid cartilage. Below the larynx is
the trachea which divides into the right and left primary bronchi. The
right primary bronchus leads to the right lung and the left primary

bronchus leads to the left lung. Label the parts of the respiratory system
illustrated. Color the two visible cartilages of the larynx different colors
and the trachea another color. Color the bronchi in first with a darker
color and then color the lungs in with a lighter color.

Answer Key; a. Trachea, b. Right primary bronchus, c. Right lung, d. Thyroid cartilage, e. Cricoid cartilage, f. Left primary bronchus, g. Left lung

chapter Ten
Respiratory System

medical ^^^

NOSE AMD NASAL
SEPTUM

The nose consists of the nasal bones,
the frontal process of the maxilla at
the root of the nose, and a number
of cartilages. These nasal cartilages
are made of hyaline cartilage. These
are the lateral nasal cartilages, the
greater alar cartilages, and the
lesser alar cartilages. The septal
cartilage also forms part of these
cartilages. The openings of the nose
(nostrils) are the external nares
(external naris singular).

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

The nasal cavity has a wall that runs
down the middle of it called the
nasal septum. The septum consists
of three parts, the perpendicular
plate of the ethmoid bone (a
continuation of the crista gaUi), the
vomer and the septal cartilage. At
the end of the nasal septum are two
holes that separate the nasal cavity
from the nasopharynx. These are
the choanae or internal nares. The
floor of the nasal cavity is bordered
by the hard palate and the soft
palate. At the junction of the crista
galli and the perpendicular plate of
the ethmoid is the cribriform plate
of the ethmoid. Label the various
structures of the nose such as the
bones and color in the cartilages of
the nose.

Answer Key: a. Nasal bone, b. Frontal
process of maxilla, c. Septal cartilage,
d. Lateral nasal cartilage, e. Lesser alar
cartilages, i Greater alar cartilage,
g. External naris, h. Crista galli of
ethmoid bone, i. Cribriform plate,
J. Perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone,
k. Vomer, I. Hard palate, m. Soft palate,
n. Choanae (internal nares)

Chapter Ten
Respiratory System

medical ^^^

LATERAL WALL OF NASAL
CAVITY AND RESPIRATORY
EPITHELIUM

When looking at the nasal cavity, if
the septal cartilage is removed you
can see the nasal conchae. These
structures force the inhaled air to
come into contact with the wall of
the nasal cavity where the air is
warmed and moistened. There are
three nasal conchae, the superior
nasal concha, the middle nasal
concha, and the inferior nasal
concha. Note the position of the
conchae with the nasal bone, the
hard palate and the soft palate.
Label the nasal cavity and the
structures that are associated with
the cavity.

e. .

The nasal cavity is lined with
respiratory epithelium which is
pseudostratified cUiated columnar
epithelium with goblet cells.

Respiratory epithelium is found in
the nasal cavity, the lower larynx,
trachea, and bronchi. The goblet
cells secrete mucus which forms a
film over the epithelial surface. Dust
and other particulate matter sticks to
the mucous sheet which is moved by
the cilia. This provides a protective
function, removing particulate
matter from entering the lungs
where it might do damage. Label the
various parts of respiratory
epithelium such as the nucleus, cilia,
mucous sheet, goblet cells, and
basement membrane.

^ ©^^
%

Answer Key: a. Nasal bone, b. Superior
nasal concha, c. Middle nasal concha,
d. Inferior nasal concha, e. Hard palate,
i Soft palate, g. Mucous sheet, h. Cilia,
i. Goblet cells, j. Nuclei, k. Basement
membrane

Chapter Ten
Respiratory System

KAPLAN-., ,

medical

257

CORONAL VIEW OF THE NASAL CONCHAE AND
LARYNX

The nasal cavity is more than a hole behind the nose. Inhaled air swirls
around the conchae and is warmed and moistened in the process. Label
and color the septal cartilage in a coronal section of the nose. Label and
color each of the conchae. The superior nasal concha, middle nasal

concha, and the inferior nasal concha should each have a different
color. The frontal and ethmoid sinuses can also be seen in this
illustration. They give resonance to the voice. Note the location of the
hard palate and the external naris in this coronal section. The larynx is
also sectioned in this plane and the position of the thyroid cartilage, the
vocal fold, the cricoid cartilage, and the trachea are seen in this view.
Label and color the rest of the structures in this illustration.

Answer Key: a. Sinuses, b. Superior nasal concha, c. Middle nasal concha, d. Septal cartilage, e. Inferior nasal concha, f. Hard palate, g. External naris,
h. Thyroid cartilage, i. Vocal fold, ). Cricoid cartilage, k. Trachea

Chapter Ten
Respiratory System

meclical ^^^

LARYNX AND TRACHEA

The larynx is the "voice box" and it not only produces sound for speech
but also separates the flow of air to the lungs from the flow of foods and
liquids that go down the esophagus. The thyroid cartilage is the largest
cartilage of the larynx and it is easily seen from the anterior aspect. The
thyroid cartilage is inferior to the hyoid bone. Behind the thyroid
cartilage is the epiglottis which is the only laryngeal structure made of
elastic cartilage. Inferior to the thyroid cartilage is the cricoid cartUage
and it is the inferior border of the larynx. The cricothyroid ligament
joins these anterior structures together. Above the cricoid cartilage are
the paired arytenoid cartUages. These attach to the vocal folds and
tighten them, causing the voice to increase in pitch. Superior to the
arytenoid cartilages are the corniculate cartilages that are shaped like
small horns. The glottis is the opening into the larynx and the epiglottis
is the flap that folds over the glottis during swallowing.

In the midsagittal section of the larynx you can see that the cricoid
cartilage is larger on the posterior aspect. The thyroid cartUage is
prominent on the anterior side, the arytenoid and corniculate
cartUages are prominent on the posterior side, along with the cricoid
cartUage, the epiglottis, and the vocal folds. The vestibular fold (false
vocal cord) is superior and is found on the lateral wall of the larynx.
Below this is the vocal cord (vocal fold) that produces sound. The conus
elasticus consists of elastic tissue and connects the vocal folds to the
cartilages. Below the larynx is the trachea which leads from the larynx to
the lungs. Label and color the structures of the larynx and label and
color in the trachea.

Answer Key: a. Epiglottis, b. Hyoid bone, c. Thyroid cartilage, d. Corniculate cartilage, e. Vestibular fold, i Vocal fold, g. Arytenoid cartilage, h. Conus elasticus,
i. Cricothyroid ligament, j. Cricoid cartilage, k. Trachea, I. Glottis

chapter Ten
Respiratory System

medical ^^*

THE TRACHEA AMD
BRONCHIAL TREE

The trachea connects to the larynx
superiorly and ends interiorly in a
keel-shaped structure called the
carina. The trachea is composed of
the tracheal rings which are hyaline
cartilage. The posterior surface of
the trachea has smooth muscle
called the trachealis muscle that
allows for the food in the esophagus
to bulge into the trachea. The
trachea branches into the right
primary bronchus and the left
primary bronchus which form part
of the lungs.

Answer Key: a. Trachea, b. Right
primary bronchus, c. Tracheal ring,
d. Left primary bronchus, e. Carina,
f. Trachealis muscle

Chapter Ten
Respiratory System

medical ^^^

LUNGS AMD MEMBRANES

The lungs are in the thoracic cavity
on either side of the mediastinum.
The membrane that occurs on the
inside of the ribs and on the superior
aspect of the diaphragm is known as
the parietal pleura. The space inside
of this is the pleural cavity and the
lungs occupy the pleural cavities.
The innermost membrane is the
visceral pleura and it is attached to
the surface of the lung. The right
lung has three lobes: a superior lobe,
a middle lobe, and an inferior lobe.
The left lung has two lobes: a
superior lobe and an inferior lobe.
The left lung also has an indentation
where the heart protrudes into the
left lung and this is the cardiac
notch. Label the membranes and the
parts of the lungs and color them in.

Answer Key; a. Parietal pleura,
b. Visceral pleura, c. Superior lobe,
d. Middle lobe, e. Inferior lobe,
f. Cardiac notch, g. Pleural cavity,
h. Trachea

Chapter Ten
Respiratory System

medical ^^^

THE PATHWAY OF AIR

The lungs are like large sponges
filled with microscopic spaces. Air
travels to these spaces by the
bronchial tree. The trachea splits at
the level of the lungs into two
primary bronchi. Each lung has a
primary bronchus that divides to
secondary bronchi. These divide
further to tertiary bronchi which
divide into smaller branches. Finally
bronchi become bronchioles and
these lead to smaller sacs where the
exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide occurs between the lungs
and blood. Shade the major
segments of the bronchial tree.

The air from the bronchioles moves
into the alveolar ducts which are
part of the clusters called alveolar
sacs. The air flows into the alveolar
duct which is a conduit to the
individual alveoli (alveolus
singular) and these are the areas
where there is an exchange of oxygen
and carbon dioxide between the air
and blood. Capillaries are situated
next to the alveoli and there are two
thin set of membranes — one of the
alveolus and one of the capillary —
that allow the exchange of oxygen
and carbon dioxide. Additionally
there are type II alveolar cells
(septal cells) that secrete a material
called surfactant. This substance
reduces the surface tension of the
lungs, allowing them to expand
more easily. Color in the structures
of the alveolar sacs and the
associated structures.

Answer Key: a. Cartilage, b. Secondary
bronchus, c. Tertiary bronchus,
d. Bronchi, e. Bronchioles, f. Alveoli,
g. Capillaries, h. Type II alveolar cell
(septal cell), i. Surfactant, j. Red blood
cell, k. Alveolus, I. Pulmonary artery,
m. Alveolar ducts, n. Pulmonary vein,
0, Alveolar sac

Chapter Eleven: Digestive System

267

OVERVIEW OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive system is composed of a long tube called the alimentary
canal and the accessory organs including the liver, pancreas, and gall
bladder. The alimentary canal starts at the mouth, includes the
esophagus, stomach, intestines, and rectum and terminates at the anus.
It can be defined as the tube through which ingested products move. The
accessory organs have digestive functions but they do not come into
contact with material passing through the digestive tract. The alimentary
canal consists of numerous organs including the mouth which is the
opening to the system and is directly anterior to the oral cavity. The
terminal aspect of the oral cavity is defined by the small mass of fleshy
tissue called the uvula. Posterior to the oral cavity is the oropharynx.
This chamber receives food and liquid from the mouth and air from

both the mouth and nasal cavity. The oropharynx leads to the
esophagus which is a muscular tube that takes ingested material to the
stomach. The stomach is a storage organ leading to the small intestine
where material is digested and absorbed. The large intestine receives
material from the small intestine, removes a significant amount of water,
and stores the fecal material prior to defecation.

The salivary glands are the most superior accessory glands. They
lubricate food and add digestive enzymes to material that is swallowed.
The liver, pancreas and gallbladder all add secretions to the ingested
material and aid in the digestive process. Label the parts of the digestive
system, including the alimentary canal and the accessory organs, and
color the individual digestive organs a different color.

a._

c._

d.-

Answer Key: a. Alimentary canal, b. Mouth, c. Esophagus, d. Stomach, e. Small intestine, f. Large intestine, g. Accessory organs, h. Salivary glands, i. Liver, j. Pancreas,
k. Gall bladder, I. Rectum, m. Anus

chapter Eleven I kaplait^. __„

Digestive System | medlCal ^"^

MOUTH AND ORAL
CAVITY

The mouth is the entrance to the
digestive system. It is bordered by
the two labia or Hps. Each labium
has a labial frenulum (superior and
inferior) that holds the lip to the
gingiva. The gingiva (gums) have a
surface tissue of stratified squamous
epithelium which is the cell type that
lines the entire oral cavity. The oral
cavity encloses the teeth, and the
tongue. It is bordered by the hard
palate, the soft palate, the uvula, the
cheek walls, the muscles and
associated tissue that spans across
the bodies of the mandible. The oral
cavity leads to the oropharynx,
which in turn leads to the
esophagus.

The tongue is a large muscle in the
oral cavity that pushes food to the
posterior part of the oral cavity for
swallowing and helps form speech. It
is held to the floor of the oral cavity
by the lingual frenulum.

Answer Key: a. Superior labial
frenulum, b. Gingiva, c. Hard palate,
d. Soft palate, e. Uvula, f. Oropharynx,
g. Tongue , h. Inferior labial frenulum,
i. Esophagus

Chapter Eleven
Digestive System

medical

271

SALIVARY GLANDS

The three pair of salivary glands secrete saliva inside the oral cavity. The
largest pair consists of the parotid glands and they are located just
anterior to the ears. The parotid duct leads from the gland to posterior
to the upper second molar. The submandibular glands are located

inferior to the mandible and they take secretions to either side of the
lingual frenulum. The sublingual glands are inferior to the tongue and
have many tubes that lead to the lower oral cavity. Label the salivary
glands and the parotid duct. Color each gland a different color.

,lf^/^^--^-

Tongue

Buccinator muscle

Mandible

Mylohyoid muscle

Answer Key; a. Sublingual gland, b. Submandibular gland, c. Parotid gland, d. Parotid duct

chapter Eleven
Digestive System

medical ^^3

TEETH

The tooth has three general regions:
the crown, the neck, and the root. The
crown is the part of the tooth that
erupts from the gums into the oral
cavity. The neck is normally at the
level of the gingiva and the root is
imbedded into the bone. The tooth
fits into the alveolar socket of the
maxilla or the mandible and is held
there by the periodontal ligaments.

The internal anatomy of the tooth
reveals the hard enamel which is an
extremely dense material that resists
vi^ear and abrasion. Deep to this is
the dentin, a material similar to
bone that provides the major
structure of the tooth. In the root,
the dentin is coated with cementum
that helps fix the tooth in the
alveolar socket. Inside of the dentin
is the pulp cavity that houses nerves
and blood vessels. These structures
enter the tooth by the apical
foramen and make their way to the
pulp cavity by the root canal.

Humans have two series of teeth.
Early in development come the
deciduous (milk) teeth. The
permanent teeth emerge as the skull
is increasing in size. In deciduous
teeth there are incisors, cuspids
(canines), and molar teeth but there
are no premolars. In adults there are
the incisor teeth, the cuspids,
premolars (bicuspids), and molar
teeth. Label the parts of the tooth
and then color in the regions of the
tooth on one side of the illustration
and the enamel, dentin, and other
features on the other part of the
illustration. For the deciduous and
permanent teeth, use the same color
for the incisors on both illustrations.
Use another color for the cuspids
and another for the premolars, and
so on for the rest of the teeth.

Answer Key: a. Crown, b. Neck, c. Root,
d. Enamel, e. Dentin, f. Pulp cavity,
g. Periodontal ligament, h. Root canal,
i. Cementum, |. Apical foramen,
k. Blood vessels and nerves, I. Incisors,
m. Cuspids (canines), n. Premolars
(bicuspids), o. Molars

Chapter Eleven
Digestive System

medical ^^^

ESOPHAGUS

Food moves from the oral cavity to
the oropharynx by action of the
tongue. The uvula flips upward
keeping the food from entering the
nasal cavity. Food passes from the
oropharynx into the laryngopharynx
before moving to the esophagus. The
food enters the esophagus as a lump
or bolus and passes through the
esophageal sphincter to the stom-
ach. Once it enters the stomach the
bolus mixes with stomach fluid and
becomes a liquid called chyme. Label
and color the structures leading to
the esophagus and the esophagus
itself including the esophageal
sphincter.

Buccinator muscle

Answer Key: a. Oropharynx,
b. Laryngopharynx, c. Esophagus,
d. Uvula, e. Oral cavity, f. Stomach,
g. Esophageal sphincter

Chapter Eleven
Digestive System

medical ^''

STOMACH

The stomach is located on the left side of the body, just inferior to the
diaphragm. It is the part of the alimentary canal located between the
esophagus and the small intestine. The stomach has an upper cardia and
a small domed portion called the fundus. The stomach contents are
restricted from flowing back into the esophagus by the esophageal
sphincter. If stomach fluid refluxes into the esophagus, it is felt as
"heartburn."

The main portion of the stomach is the body and the narrow region,
leading to the duodenum is the antrum or pyloric region. This leads to
the pyloric canal which is controlled by the pyloric sphincter. The
greater curvature is located on the left edge of the stomach and the
lesser curvature is on the right side. The stomach has inner ridges called
rugae which allow for expansion of the stomach.

The stomach has many layers. The inner layer is called the mucosa which
is rich in glands that secrete acids and inactive enzymes such as
pepsinogen into the stomach cavity. Pepsinogen is activated by
hydrochloric acid. The mucosa has gastric pits with parietal cells and
chief cells emptying into the pits. The parietal cells secrete hydrochloric
acid and the chief cells secrete pepsinogen. External to the mucosa is the
submucosa and this layer has many blood vessels imbedded in
connective tissue. Beyond this is the muscularis. In the stomach there
are three layers of the muscularis. These are the oblique layer, circular
layer, and longitudinal layer. The most external layer is the serosa (also
known as the visceral peritoneum) and this is next to the abdominal
cavity. Label the parts of the stomach and color them in. Color the layers
of the muscularis using different colors of red or pink for each layer.
Color the general regions of the stomach different colors along with the
separate sphincters.

Muscularis layers:
d

Muscularis
layers

Answer Key: a. Fundus, b. Cardia, c. Lesser curvature, d. Longitudinal layer (of muscularis), e. Circular layer (of muscularis), f. Oblique layer (of muscularis), g. Body,
h. Rugae, i. Greater curvature, j. Pyloric canal, k. Pyloric sphincter, I. Antrum, m. Gastric pit, n. Chief cell, o. Parietal cell, p. Mucosa, q. Submucosa, r. Serosa

Chapter Eleven
Digestive System

meclical ^^^

SMALL INTESTINE

The small intestine receives the
contents of the stomach, continues
the process of digestion and absorbs
nutrients. The first part of the small
intestine is the duodenum, a short
tube of about twelve inches in
length, that receives material from
the stomach, enzymes and buffers
from the pancreas, and bile from the
gall bladder. The duodenum has
circular folds in the wall that
increase the surface area. The
jejunum is the next section of the
small intestine and it makes up
about forty percent of the small
intestine. There are circular folds in
the jejunum as well. The ileum is the
terminal portion of the small
intestine and represents about sixty
percent of the small intestine. The
small intestine is small in diameter
and that is how it gets its name.

The small intestine is distinguished
from the rest of the alimentary canal
by the presence of villi. These small
structures in the mucosa increase the
surface area of the small intestine
and house blood capillaries and
lacteals for the absorption of
nutrients. The small intestine has the
four layers typical of the other
organs of the gastrointestinal tract:
the mucosa, submucosa,
muscularis, and serosa. Label the
parts of the small intestine and color
in the various regions and layers of
the small intestine.

Answer Key: a. Gall bladder,

b. Pancreas, c. Duodenum, d. Jejunum,

e. Ileum, f. Circular fold, g. Villi,

h. Submucosa, i. Muscularis

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(Lower three-fifth

n n„

h._

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d..

e. -

chapter Eleven
Digestive System

medical

281

LARGE INTESTINE

The large intestine is shorter than
the small intestine but has greater
width. The large intestine begins in
the lower right quadrant of the
abdomen with a sac-like structure
called the cecum. The ileocecal valve
is a muscular sphincter that prevents
the fecal material in the cecum from
flowing back into the ileum. At this
junction is the vermiform
appendix. Material in the large
intestine moves from the cecum to
the ascending colon and then makes
a sharp turn at the hepatic flexure.
Once this turn is accomplished, the
material is in the transverse colon.
From here there is a sharp
downward angle called the splenic
flexure and the material enters the
descending colon. From the
descending colon, the material
enters an S-shaped tube called the
sigmoid colon and then enters the
rectum. The rectum is the end of the
large intestine. The rectum leads to
the anal canal which is a short tube
leading to the anus.

There are several anatomical features
that separate the large intestine from
the small intestine. The large
intestine has long strips of smooth
muscle that run the length of the
large intestine. These are called the
teniae coli. These muscles pull the
intestine into small compartments
called haustra. Another
distinguishing feature of the large
intestine is the presence of small fat
globules called epiploic appendages.
Label the parts of the large intestine
and color in each region with a
different color. Color the haustra
light red and the tenia coli pink.
Color the epiploic appendages
yellow.

Answer Key: a. Hepatic flexure,
b. Splenic flexure, c. Transverse colon,
d. Descending colon, e. Epiploic
appendages, f. Sigmoid colon,
g. Rectum, h. Anal canal, i. Anus,
j. Vermiform appendix, k. Cecum,
1. Ascending colon, m. Tenia coli,
n. Haustra

Chapter Eleven
Digestive System

meclical 2^3

LIVER

The liver is the largest internal organ
of the body. It is on the right side of
the body and plays a major
metabolic function in digestion and
also in processing material from the
blood. The liver has four lobes in
humans and is held to the
diaphragm by the falciform
ligament. The right lobe is the
largest of the lobes. The left lobe is
also reasonably large. The quadrate
lobe is anterior and is rectangular in
shape when seen from the inferior
view. The caudate lobe is a posterior
lobe of the liver.

The blood flows into the liver from
two sources. The hepatic portal vein
takes blood to the liver from the
digestive tract and some abdominal
organs. The hepatic artery brings
oxygenated blood to the liver. The
liver is composed of microscopic
sections called liver lobules. These
are typically hexagonal columns that
have a central vein that takes blood
back to the heart via the hepatic
vein. Blood travels to the central vein
by sinusoids, canals that are lined by
hepatocytes (liver cells).
Hepatocytes clean the blood or
process material in the blood. Old
blood pigments are recycled by the
liver and are converted to bile. The
bile moves through bile canaliculi
and eventually is stored in the gall
bladder. The branches of the hepatic
artery, portal vein, and bile duct are
clustered together and form the
portal triad. Label the liver
structures on the illustrations. Color
in the lobes of the liver using
different colors for each lobe. Color
the hepatic portal vein blue, the
hepatic artery red, and the bile ducts
green.

Answer Key: a. Right lobe, b. Left lobe,
c. Falciform ligament, d. Portal vein,
e. Hepatic artery, f. Caudate lobe,
g. Quadrate lobe, h. Portal triad,
i. Central vein, j. Bile duct, k. Hepatic
artery branch, I. Bile canaliculus,
m. Portal vein branch, n. Hepatocytes,
o. Sinusoids

a..

Esophagus

Stomach

Gall bladder

Liver Lobule

Chapter Eleven
Digestive System

medical ^ss

PANCREAS/
GALL BLADDER

The pancreas is a complex organ
that has both a digestive function
and an endocrine function. The
digestive function of the pancreas
consists of producing enzymes for
the digestion of materials in the
small intestine and the secretion of
buffers to increase the pH of the
fluid secreted from the stomach. The
pancreas has a head, next to the
duodenum, a main body and a tail
near the spleen. The enzymes and
buffers secreted into the small
intestine flow into the pancreatic
duct before entering the small
intestine.

The gall bladder receives bile from
the liver, storing and condensing it
prior to secreting it into the small
intestine. Bile is an emulsifier of fats,
making them disperse in the liquid
chyme of the digestive tract. Bile
flows from the left and right hepatic
ducts, into the common hepatic
duct, into the cystic duct then
entering the gall bladder. When the
gall bladder contracts, bile moves
back out the cystic duct and into the
common bile duct before entering
the small intestine. Usually the
common bile duct and the
pancreatic duct join before they
enter the small intestine. In this case
the tube is called the
hepatopancreatic ampulla and it
leads to the duodenal papilla. Label
the parts of the pancreas, gall
bladder and ducts and color them in.

^^on-i the i^

Answer Key: a. Gall bladder,
b, Paricreas, c. Duodenum, d. Head,
e. Body, f. Tail, g. Right hepatic duct,
h. Cystic duct, i. Duodenal papilla, j. Left
hepatic duct, k. Common hepatic duct,
I. Common bile duct, m. Pancreatic duct

Chapter Twelve: Urinary System I 28?

OVERVIEW OF THE
URINARY SYSTEM

The urinary system consists of two
kidneys, two ureters, a urinary
bladder, and a urethra. The right
kidney is a httle more inferior than
the left kidney due to the presence of
the liver on the right side of the
body. The kidneys are located near
the twelfth vertebra and extend to
the third lumbar vertebra. They
receive blood from the renal artery.
The kidneys are retroperitoneal,
meaning that they are posterior to
the parietal peritoneum. The ureters
are also retroperitoneal and take
urine to the bladder. Since the
urinary bladder is located anterior to
the parietal peritoneum it is called
anteperitoneal. Label the organs of
the urinary system and use separate
colors for the kidneys, ureters,
urinary bladder, and urethra.

Answer Key: a. Kidney, b. Ureter,
c. Urinary bladder, d. Urethra,
e. Renal artery

Pancreas

Adrenal gland

Aorta

Psoas major muscle

Chapter Twelve
Urinary System

meclical ^89

KIDNEY

The kidney is a bean-shaped organ.
The outer surface of the kidney is
covered by the renal capsule. The
depression on the medial side is the
hilum where the renal artery enters
the kidney and the renal vein and
the ureter exit. The kidney is
sectioned in the coronal plane to
study the internal anatomy. The
renal capsule is a thin membrane on
the exterior of the kidney. Deep to
the capsule is the renal cortex where
filtration takes place in the kidney.
The renal medulla is deep to the
cortex and it is divided into renal
columns and renal pyramids. Each
pyramid ends in a papilla and this
drips urine into small funnel-shaped
structures called the minor calyces
(calyx singular). The minor calyces
join to form the major calyces and
these, in turn, take urine to the renal
pelvis. The renal pelvis occupies
most of the renal sinus, a space in
the kidney. The renal pelvis takes
urine to the ureter on the medial
side of the kidney. Blood travels to
the kidney by the renal artery. From
there the blood moves into
segmental arteries and then
interlobar arteries. From the
interlobar arteries the blood travels
to the arcuate arteries. These
arteries are the dividing structures
between the renal cortex and the
renal medulla. From the arcuate
arteries blood flows into the
interlobular arteries. Label the parts
of the kidney and associated
structures. Use one color for the
cortex and different shades of
another color for the renal pyramids
and columns. Color the renal artery
red and the renal vein blue. Use
yellow for the pelvis and ureter.

Answer Key: a. Renal artery, b. Hilum,
c. Renal vein, d. Renal pelvis, e. Ureter,
f. Renal capsule, g. Major calyces,
h. Renal sinus, i. Renal cortex, j. Renal
pyramid (in renal medulla), k. Papilla,
I. Renal column, m. Minor calyces,
n. Segmental arteries, o. Interlobar
artery, p. Interlobular artery,
q. Arcuate arteries

chapter Twelve
Urinary System

meibical ^^^

URINARY BLADDER

The urinary bladder is a storage
organ for holding urine. The ureters
enter the bladder at the ureteral
orifices and the urethra exits the
bladder inferiorly. These three
openings make a triangular region
known as the trigone at the
posterior wall of the bladder. The
urethra is the external tube that
takes urine voided from the urinary
bladder to outside the body. The
urethra in the female is much
shorter than in the male, which
makes females more susceptible to
bladder infections. The wall of the
bladder consists of smooth muscle
called the detrusor muscle and an
inner lining of transitional
epithelium. Label the features of the
bladder, urethra, and associated
structures and color them in.

Inferior ramus of pubis

Urethral sphincter muscle

Female Urinary System

Answer Key: a. Ureter, b. Urinar/
bladder, c. Detrusor muscle,
d. Ureteral orifice, e. Trigone, f. Urethra,
g. Right kidney

Male Urinary System

chapter Twelve
Urinary System

medical ^^^

THE NEPHRON

The functional unit of the kidney is
the nephron. It is here that material
is filtered from the blood; some
material is lost in the urine while
other material is reabsorbed back
into the cardiovascular system. The
renal corpuscle of the nephron
includes the glomerulus and the
glomerular (Bowman's) capsule.
The lining of the capsule wraps
around the glomerulus and filtered
material enters the nephron at this
point. The glomerular capsule leads
to the proximal convoluted tubule.
This tubule has a brush border
consisting of many microvilli and it
provides for a great surface area for
reabsorption of materials. Most of
the reabsorption of material in the
nephron occurs here. The
peritubular capillaries wrap around
the kidney tubules and reabsorb the
filtered material. From the proximal
convoluted tubule, the fluid flows
into the nephron loop (loop of
Henle). The nephron loop takes
fluid to the distal convoluted
tubule. From here the filtrate flows
into a collecting duct. Collecting
ducts receive fluid from many
nephrons. Label the parts of the
nephron and associated structures
and color them in. Each part of the
nephron should be colored a
different color.

To minor calyx

Answer Key: a. Glomerulus, b. Distal

convoluted tubule, c. Proximal

convoluted tubule, d. Cortex,

e. Medulla, f. Arcuate vein, g. Arcuate

artery, h. Nephron loop (loop of Henle),

I. Nephron, j. Collecting duct, k. Afferent

arteriole, I. Efferent arteriole,

m. Glomerular (Bowman's) capsule

Chapter Thirteen: Male Reproductive System | 295

OVERVIEW OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The male reproductive system consists of the two testes, the epididymis,
the ductus deferens enclosed in the spermatic cord, the seminal
vesicles, the prostate gland, the bulbourethral glands, and the penis.

The testes are the glands that produce testosterone and sperm cells.
Sperm cells travel from the testes to the epididymis where they are stored
and mature. From the epididymis sperm cells move into the ductus
deferens, which enters the body and travels to the posterior bladder.

From here the ductus deferens turns into the ejaculatory duct, which
receives fluid from the semimal vesicles. The ejaculatory duct leads to the
urethra where secretions from the prostate and bulbourethral glands are
added. Finally the sperm cells and seminal fluid (together these make
semen) are ejaculated from the penis.

Label the parts of the male reproductive system and color the various
structures in the illustration.

Answer Key: a. Ductus deferens, b. Seminal vesicle, c. Prostate, d. Bulbourethral gland, e. Epididymis, f. Testis, g. Uncircumcised penis, h. Circumcised penis, i. Urethra

chapter Thirteen
Male Reproductive System

meclical 297

ORGANS OF THE MALE
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The testes are enclosed in the scrotal
sac which is Hned with a smooth
muscle layer called the dartos
muscle. This muscle contracts when
the temperatures drop near the
testes, causing them to withdraw
closer to the body where it is
warmer. Another muscle of the
region is the cremaster muscle. It
also contracts when it is cold but it is
made of skeletal muscle. The
epididymis sits on top of the testis
like a small cap and is a place where
sperm cells mature. The spermatic
cord consists of the cremaster
muscle, the ductus deferens, the
testicular artery, and a complex
meshwork of veins called the
pampiniform plexus. This plexus
cools arterial blood flowing to the
testes maintaining the testes at about
35 degrees C which is important for
proper sperm maturation.

The sperm are produced in the
seminiferous tubules of the testis.
This occurs in lobules of the testis
before they move to the epididymis.
The epididymis has a series of long
coiled tubules called the ductus
epididymis and the sperm cells
slowly pass through this ductwork.
After the sperm cells mature in the
epididymis they then travel to the
ductus deferens which loops around
the ureters before reaching the
seminal vesicles located on the
posterior surface of the urinary
bladder. The seminal vesicles add a
fluid that has buffers and that
provides fructose to the sperm cells.
From the seminal vesicles the fluid
passes through the ejaculatory duct
to the prostate. The prostate adds
further fluid that is rich in buffers.
This fluid passes into the urethra.
The bulbourethral glands add a
protein lubricant to the fluid. Label
the organs and their features in the
illustration and color them in
different colors.

Answer Key: a. Ductus deferens,
b. Pampiniform plexus, c. Testicular
artery, d. Epididymis, e. Testis,

f. Cremaster muscle and fascia,

g. Scrotal skin and dartos muscle,

h. Ureter, i. Urinary bladder, j. Seminal
vesicle, k. Ejaculatory duct, I. Prostate,
m. Bulbourethral gland, n. Urethra,
0. Ductus epididymis, p. Lobules of
testis

chapter Thirteen
Male Reproductive System

medical '»'

M I DSAGITTAL SECTION OF
PELVIS/CROSS SECTION
OF PENIS AND
SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES

when seen in a midsagittal section,
the relationship of the glands that
produce seminal fluid can easily be
seen. The prostate is approximately
the size of a golf ball and is located
inferior to the urinary bladder. The
prostatic urethra is the portion of
the urethra that is enclosed in the
prostate. The bulbourethral glands
are located in the wall of the pelvic
floor and the seminal vesicles are
posterior to the urinary bladder.
Exterior to the body wall are the
testes and these are enclosed in the
scrotal sac. The epididymis receives
sperm from the testis and has three
parts, a head, a body, and a tail. The
symphysis pubis is an important
reference point in the midsagittal
section. In males there is a flap of
tissue encircling the glans penis.
This is the prepuce (foreskin) and it
is sometimes removed at birth in a
procedure called a circumcision. The
corpus cavernosum can be seen in
this section along with the corpus
spongiosum and the spongy
urethra.

The cross section of the penis
illustrates the relative position of the
erectile tissue in the male. On the
dorsal aspect of the penis are the
paired corpora cavernosa {corpus
cavernosum singular). These
cylinders fill with blood and produce
an increase in length and diameter of
the penis. These, along with the
corpus spongiosum, are involved in
making the penis erect. The corpus
spongiosum contains the spongy
urethra. The deep dorsal vein of the
penis is also seen in cross section.
Label the structures seen in a cross
section of the penis and color in the
erectile tissue and the spongy
urethra.

The formation of sperm is known as
spermatogenesis and occurs from
spermatogonia on the superficial
wall of the seminiferous tubules.
These produce cells called primary
spermatocytes which in turn
mature into secondary
spermatocytes. Spermatids derive
from secondary spermatocytes and
they, in turn, become spermatozoa
(sperm cells). Sertoli cells assist in
the process. Label the cells and color
each one in a separate color.

C-

d.-

k..

Answer Key: a. Urinary bladder, b. Symphysis pubis, c. Corpus cavernosum, d. Corpus spongiosum, e. Glans penis,
f. Prepuce, g. Testis, h. Tail of epididymis, i. Body of epididymis, j. Head of epididymis, k. Spongy urethra, I. Bulbourethral
gland, m. Prostate, n. Seminal vesicle, o. Deep dorsal vein, p. Spermatozoa, q. Spermatids, r. Secondary spermatocytes,
s. Primary spermatocytes, t. Sertoli cell, u. Spermatogonia

Chapter Fourteen: Female Reproductive System | 301

OVERVIEW OF THE
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM

The female reproductive system
consists of the two ovaries, the
uterine tubes, a single uterus,
vagina, and the vaginal orifice. The

uterus is held to the anterior body by
the round ligaments and held to the
pelvic wall by the suspensory
ligaments. Blood flows to the ovaries
by the gonadal arteries.

The breasts are integumentary
structures and each one has
mammary glands, the areola, and
the nipple. Label the structures of
the female reproductive system and
color each of them in a different
color.

Aorta
Ureter

Answer Key: a. Areola, b. Nipple,
c. MammarY glands, d. Ovary, e. Uterine
tube, f. Round ligament, g. Uterus,
h. Vagina, i. Labium minus, j. Ovarian
vessels

External iliac vessels

Urinary bladder

chapter Fourteen
Female Reproductive System

liieclical ^^"^

MIDSACIHAL

The ovaries produce the oocytes that are released into the pelvic cavity.
Locate the suspensory ligaments that attach the ovaries to the pelvic
wall. The round ligament attaches the uterus anteriorly. The oocytes
travel into the uterine tubes and then pass into the uterus. The uterus
has a domed fundus near the entrance of the uterine tubes and a cervix
that inserts into the vagina. The depression between the uterus and the
rectum is the rectouterine pouch. The vagina is inferior to the uterus
and terminates with the vaginal orifice. Anterior to the vaginal orifice is
the urethral orifice, the external opening of the urethra. In this section

you can see the fornix of the vagina, a pocket that surrounds the cervix
of the uterus. You can also see the relationship of the labium minus and
the labium majus in this section. The labia minora are the inner vaginal
lips and the labia majora are the outer vaginal lips. These are part of the
vulva or external genitalia. Another part of the vulva is the clitoris which
consists of the external glans and the body of the clitoris. The body of
the clitoris is imbedded in the body tissue. The glans is covered with a
prepuce. Anterior to the clitoris is the mons pubis, a fatty pad of tissue
overlying the symphysis pubis. Label the organs and other structures in
the midsagittal section of the female pelvis and color the structures in
using different colors for each structure or space.

Sacral promonory

Answer Key: a. Suspensory ligaments, b. Ovary, c. Uterine tube, d. Round ligament, e. Uterus, f. Fundus, g. Cervix, h. Clitoris, i. Labium majus, j. Labium minus,
k. Vagina, I. Rectouterine pouch

chapter Fourteen
Female Reproductive System

KAPLAN. .

medical

305

OVARY

The ovary is the gonad of the female reproductive system. The back-
ground tissue of the ovary is called the stroma. It produces oocytes in a
process known as oogenesis and when they are mature they are released
from the ovary by ovulation. The ovary has primordial follicles that con-
tain primary oocytes. When the primary oocytes get a little larger they
are located in primary follicles. As the ovulatory cycle progresses some of
these primary oocytes develop into secondary oocytes. These are
enclosed in secondary follicles. Usually only one of these oocytes
enlarges and is ovulated.

There are two cycles that occur in the female reproductive system and
they are interrelated. The ovarian cycle involves the maturation of the
oocytes, ovulation, and the development of the corpus luteum. This
cycle can be divided into the preovulatory phase, ovulation, and the
postovulatory phase. The menstrual cycle involves the changes in the
endometrium. The endometrium has a basal layer that stays the same
thickness during the menstrual cycle and a functional layer that grows
larger in the early part of the menstrual cycle, becomes rich in glycogen
during the middle of a woman's cycle, and then is shed during men-
struation.

Ovarian cycle ■

Hormone levels-

Endometrium -

Stages

Menstrual Proliferative Secretory Menstrual

Answer Key: a. Primary oocytes, b. Secondary follicles, c. Primary follicle, d. Secondary oocytes, e. Primordial follicles, f Corpus luteum, g. Preovulatory phase,
h. Ovulation, i. Postovulatory phase, j. Functional layer, k. Basal layer

chapter Fourteen
Female Reproductive System

KAPLAN. , .

medical

307

SECTION OF UTERUS AND VAGINA

The oocyte is ovulated from the ovary and moves into the uterine
tube. The uterine tube is fringed by small cylindrical structures called
fimbriae. The uterus is a small, flask-shaped organ. The uterus has a
domed fundus, a main body, a narrowed isthmus, and an inferior
cervix. The uterosacral ligament attaches the uterus to the sacrum.
Most of the uterine wall is made of the myometrium which is a thick
layer of smooth muscle. The vagina is approximately ten centimeters in

length and is lined with stratified squamous epithelium and smooth
muscle. A small ring of mucous membrane called the hymen is present
in the vagina and is frequently torn during first intercourse. The hymen
can rupture prior to intercourse and is not a good indicator of
virginity. The vagina has rugae which are folds in the vaginal wall.
These stimulate the penis and also allow for expansion of the vagina
during delivery. Label the suspensory ligament and ovarian ligament
as well as the structures of the uterus, ovary, and vagina. Color the
regions of the uterus, ovary, vagina, and associated structures.

Answer Key: a. Uterine tube, b. Oocyte, c. Uterus, d. Fundus, e. Body, f. Isthmus, g. Cervix, h. Vagina, i. Suspensory ligament, j. Fimbriae, k. Ovary, I. Ovarian ligament,
m. Uterosacral ligament, n. Rugae, o. Hymen

Chapter Fourteen
Female Reproductive System

KAPLAN-., .

medical

309

FEMALE BREAST AND EXTERNAL GENITALIA

The mammary glands are located in the breast. They produce milk
when a woman is lactating and lead to lactiferous ducts. These ducts
take milk to the lactiferous sinuses which drain into the nipple. Because
breast cancer is a significant cause of mortality in women, the lymph
drainage of the breast is important. Primary tumors may originate in the
breast tissue and then migrate by lymphatic vessels to the axillary
lymph nodes. This is one of the main ways that breast cancer spreads.
There is a small series of parasternal lymph nodes that takes a small
portion of the lymph back to the cardiovascular system.

The floor of the pelvis is known as the perineum and can be divided into
a urogenital triangle and an anal triangle. The anal triangle contains
the anus and the urogenital triangle houses the vaginal orifice, the
urethral orifice, and the clitoris. The mons pubis is the most anterior
part of the external genitalia and posterior to that is the prepuce. This
structure envelops the clitoris. The labia majora and the labia minora
encircle the vaginal orifice. The vagina is lubricated internally by some
glands during arousal and intercourse as well as from the greater
vestibular glands located laterally and posteriorly to the vaginal orifice.
Label the structures of the female breast and the external genitalia and
color them in.

Pubic symphysis

Ischial tuberosity

Answer Key: a. Axillary lymph nodes, b. Lymphatic vessels, c. Parasternal lymph nodes, d. Lactiferous sinuses, e. Lactiferous ducts, i Urogenital triangle,
g. Anal triangle, h. Mons pubis, i. Prepuce, j. Clitoris, k. Labia nninora, 1. Labia majora, m. Urethral orifice, n. Vaginal orifice, o. Greater vestibular gland, p. Anus

Chapter Fifteen: Development | 311

PREEMBRYONIC STAGE

The process of development begins with the union of the sperm and
oocyte. After ovulation, the secondary oocyte moves down the uterine
tube and, if fertilization occurs by sperm, it usually happens in the
uterine tube. Once fertilization occurs, the oocyte and the sperm unite
to become a zygote. The zygote divides during this preembryonic stage
and forms a two-celled stage. These cells go through numerous
divisions and are called blastomeres. The two blastomeres divide and
become four cells and this process continues until a cluster of cells

(16 to 32 of them) is formed called a morula. As division continues this
cluster becomes a hollow ball of cells called a blastocyst. The hollow
cavity of the blastocyst is called the blastocele and most of the wall of
the blastocyst consists of a layer of simple squamous epithelia called the
trophoblast. One part of the wall consists of an inner cell mass known
as the embryoblast. Some of these cells will develop into the embryo.
Label the structures in the preembryonic stage of development. Color
in the various stages in different colors and use one color for the
trophoblast and another for the embryoblast.

Answer Key: a. Ovulation, b. Fertilization, c. Two-cell stage, d. (Morula, e. Blastocyst, f. Zygote, g. Blastomere, h. Trophoblast, i. Embryoblast, j. Blastocele

chapter Fifteen
Development

KAPLAN., .

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313

EMBRYONIC STAGE

The blastocyst is the stage of
development in which implantation
in the uterus occurs. Implantation is
the imbedding of the blastocyst in
the endometrium of the mother.
Once this occurs, a hollow space
develops in the embryoblast and this
is called the amniotic cavity. At this
time, the embryoblast is divided into
a bilaminar germ disk with two
primitive tissues called the epiblast
and the hypoblast. The primitive
streak forms along the
anterior/posterior axis of the
embryo and it becomes a region of
growth in the early stage of
development.

From the epiblast the embryoblast
begins to form three primary germ
layers. These are the endoderm,
ectoderm, and mesoderm. The
structure is now referred to as a
trilaminar germ disk (meaning a
developmental structure with three
layers). The development of the
notochord begins and this structure
will make up the center part
(nucleosus pulposus) of the
intervertebral disks in the adult. The
yolk sac also forms during this
period. Once the germ layers are
formed, the preembryonic stage ends
and the developing tissue is known as
an embryo. The embryonic stage
begins about day 16 after fertilization
and lasts until about the eighth week
of pregnancy. During the embryonic
stage, the major organs of the body
are initiated in a process called
organogenesis.

During the first part of the
embryonic phase, the ectoderm
begins to fold in on itself and
becomes a neural groove. This will
develop into the nervous system of
the body. Other derivatives of the
ectoderm are the epidermis and
some of the facial bones and muscles.
The mesoderm gives rise to most of
the bones and muscles of the body,
the dermis, and the circulatory
system. The endodermis gives rise to
the linings of the gastrointestinal
tract and respiratory system, and
some glands. As development
continues, the neural groove folds in
on itself and becomes a neural tube
and the formation of the gut takes
place. Label the structures in the
embryonic phase and use blue colors
for the ectoderm and derivatives of
the ectoderm such as the neural
tissue. Use red for the mesoderm and
color the endoderm in yellow.

Answer Key: a. Epiblast, b. Hypoblast, c. Ectoderm, d. Mesoderm, e. Endoderm, f. Amniotic cavity, g. Bilaminar germ disk, h. Primitive streak, i. Notochord,
j. Trilaminar germ disk, k. Neural groove, 1. Yolk sac, m. Neural tube, n. Gut

Chapter Fifteen
Development

medical ^^^

FETAL STAGE

At the eighth week after fertihzation
the organs are formed and the
embryo has now become a fetus.
Prior to the fetal stage the outer wall
of the embryo develops into a
membrane called the chorion and
some of this membrane is joined
with the maternal vasculature and
forming the placenta. Between the
chorion and the embryo is the
chorionic cavity. This cavity
disappears by the eighth week. A
membrane called the amnion folds
around the embryo forming the
amniotic cavity and this cavity is
filled with amnitoic fluid.

The stages of development can be
divided into the pre-embryo (from
fertilization to two weeks), the
embryo (up to eight weeks after
fertilization) and the final stage,
the fetus (after eight weeks). The
conceptus is the term used for the
developing cells and tissues from
the pre-embryo through the fetus.

Before delivery of the fetus, the
amniotic sac ruptures releasing
amniotic fluid, the uterus contracts
expelling the fetus from the uterus,
and the final stage occurs when the
placenta is released.

Uterine epithelium

Uterine cavity

Answer Key: a. Amniotic cavity,
b. Embryo, c. Chorion, d. Chorionic
cavit/, e. Placenta, f. Fetus, g. Amnion

Index

317

abdominal aorta, 207

abdominal arteries, 217

abdominal cavity, 19

abdominal region, 7, 15

abdominopelvic cavity, 19

abducens nerve, 133

abduction, 101

accessory nerve, 133

accessory organs, 267

acetabular labrum, 97

a cetabulo femoral joint, 97

acetabulum, 75

acidophilic cells, 177

acinar cells, 185

acoustic meatus, 45, 49, 5 1

acromion process, 65

ACTH (adrenocorticotrophic
hormone), 179

adduction, 101

adenohypophysis, 177, 179

ADH (antidiuretic hormone), 179

adipose tissue, 31

adrenalglands, 11,175, 187

adrenocorticotrophic hormone
(ACTH), 179

afferent lymphatics, 243

agranular leukocytes, 195

air, pathway of, 265

alar cartilages, 253

alimentary canal, 267

alveolar ducts, 265

alveolar sacs, 265

alveoli, 265

amnion, 315

amniotic cavity, 313

amphiarthroses, 85

amygdala, 123

anal canal, 281

anal triangle, 309

anatomical position, 1

angular gyrus, 125

ansa cervicalis, 139

antebrachial region, 15, 17

antebrachial vein, 227

anterior (position), 1, 15, 163

antibodies, 247

antidiuretic hormone (ADH), 179

antigens, 247

antrum (pyloric region), 277

anus, 267, 281, 309

aortic arch, 191,207,217

aorta, 191, 193

aortic arteries, 209

aortic semilunar valve, 201 , 203

apical foramen, 273

apocrine glands, 27

appendicular skeleton, 63

arachnoid mater, 135

areola, 301

arrector pili muscle, 41

arterial circle (circle of Willis), 21 1

arterioles, 193,235

artery(ies),191,193,205,207

abdominal, 217

arcuate, 289

articulate, 215

axillary, 207, 213

basilar, 211

brain, 211

carotid, 191

cerebellar, 211

cerebral, 211

circumflex humeral, 213

coUc, 219

communicating, 211

coronary, 197, 199

facial, 209

femoral, 191,207,215
fibular, 207
gastric, 219
gonadal, 217
head, 209
hepatic, 219
ileocolic, 219
iliac, 207
intercostal, 217
interlobular, 289
interventricular, 199
lower limb, 215
marginal, 197
maxillary, 209
mesenteric, 217, 219
metatarsal, 215
obturator, 221
occipital, 209
palmar arch, 213
pelvic, 221
pulmonary, 193, 199
pudendal, 221
radial, 207, 2 13
rectal, 219, 221
renal, 217,287,289
segmental, 289
sigmoid, 219
splenic, 219, 241
subclavian, 207, 209, 213
subscapular, 213
temporal, 209
testicular, 297
thoracic, 213, 217
tibial, 207,215
ulnar, 207,213
upper limb, 2 1 3
uterine, 221
vaginal, 221
vertebral, 2 1 1

318 meclical

Index

articular cartilages, 89

articular disc, 95

articular facet, 55, 57

articular process, 57, 59

articulate artery, 215

articulations, 85-101

arytenoid cartilages, 259

astrocytes, 107

atlas, 55

atom, 5

atrioventricular bundle, 203

atrioventricular node, 203

atrium, 193, 201

auditory association area, 125

auditory canal, 167

auditory cortex, 125

auditory tube (Eustachian tube),
167,169

auricle (pinna), 167

auricular surface, 59

auricular vein, 225

autonomic nervous system, 103,
149,151

axillary artery, 207, 213

axillary lymph nodes, 309

axillary nerve, 141

axillary vein, 223, 227

axis, 55

axon hillcock, 105

axons,37, 105, 107

azygos veins, 23 1

B cells, 195, 247

ball and socket joints, 91

basal layer, 305

basal nuclei, 121

basement membrane, 23, 255

basilar artery, 211

basilar membrane, 173
basilic vein, 223, 227
basophilic cells, 177
basophils, 195
bicuspid valve, 201, 203
bicuspids (premolars), 273
bifid spinous process, 57
bilaminar germ disk, 313
bile canaliculi, 283
bile duct, 283, 285
bipolar layer, 165
bipolar neurons, 109
bladder, 13

gall, 267, 279, 285

urinary, 287, 291, 297
blastocele, 311
blastocyst, 311
blastomeres, 311
blood, 35, 195

bloodvessels, 13, 165,205,273
body cavities, 19
body regions, 15, 17
bolus, 275
bone(s),35

forearm, 71

frontal, 43, 45, 47

hand, 73

hyoid, 259

lacrimal, 45

nasal, 43, 45, 253, 255

occipital, 45, 47

palatine, 47, 49

parietal, 45, 47

pisiform, 73

sphenoid, 43, 45, 47, 51, 177

tarsal, 83

temporal, 43, 45, 51

zygomatic, 43
bony labryinth, 171

border, medial, 65

bound ribosomes, 21

Bowman's capsule, 293

brachial artery, 191, 207, 213

brachial plexus, 137, 141

brachial region, 15, 17

brachial veins, 223, 227

brachiocephalic artery, 209

brachiocephalic trunk, 207

brachiocephalic veins, 223, 225

brain, 9, 103, 1 13, 1 15, 1 17, 119, 121

brain arteries, 211

breast, female, 309

Broca's area, 125

bronchi, 251, 265

bronchial tree, 261, 265

bronchioles, 265

bronchus, 261

bulbourethral glands, 295, 299

bundle branches, 203

bursa, 89

calcaneal region, 17

calcaneus, 83

calyces, 289

capillaries, 193, 205, 235, 245, 265

capitate, 73

capitulum, 69

carbohydrate chains, 21

cardia, 277

cardiac muscle, 37

cardiac notch, 263

cardiac vein, 197, 199

cardiovascular system, 13, 191—234

carina, 261

carnucle, 159

carotid artery, 191, 207, 209, 211

Index

KAPLAN.. ,

medical

319

carotid canal, 47
carpals, 63, 73
cartilage, 33, 87

alar, 253

articular, 89

arytenoid, 259

corniculate, 259

cricoid, 257, 259

elastic, 33

hyaline, 33

nasal, 253

septal, 253, 257

thyroid, 251, 257, 259
cartilaginous joints, 85, 87
Cauda equina, 131
caudate lobe, 283
cavity(ies)

abdominal, 19

abdominopelvic, 19

amniotic, 313

anterior, 163

body, 19

chorionic, 315

cranial, 19

eye, 163

nasal, 157, 159,249,255

oral, 269, 275

pelvic, 19

pericardial, 19

pleural, 19

pulp, 273

sinus, 49

synovial, 89

thoracic, 19, 263

tympanic, 169

ventral, 19
cecum, 281
celiac trunk, 217, 219
cell membrane, 21, 23

cell(s),5,21-42,37

acidophilic, 177

acinar, 185

B, 195,247

basophilic, 177

chief, 277

effector (cytotoxic) T, 247

ependymal, 107

follicular, 181

glial (neuroglia), 37, 107

goblet, 255

granulosa, 189

hair, 173

hepatocytes (liver), 283

interstitial, 189

olfactory, 157

oxyphilic, 183

parafollicular, 181

parietal, 277

plasma, 247

principal (chief cells), 183

Schwann, 107

Sertoli, 299

spermatozoa (sperm), 299

supporting, 157

T,247

type II alveolar (septal cells), 265
cell-mediated immunity, 247
cementum, 273
central canal, 135
central nervous system, 103
central sulcus, 113, 115
central vein, 283
centrioles, 2 1
cephalic region, 17
cephalic vein, 223, 227
cerebellar arteries, 2 1 1
cerebellum, 113, 117, 119
cerebral aqueduct, 1 19, 127

cerebral arteries, 211

cerebral cortex, 121

cerebral hemispheres, 121

cerebral peduncles, 119

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), 127, 129

cerebrum, 1 25

cervical curvature, 53

cervical enlargement, 131

cervical nerve, 137

cervical plexus, 137, 139

cervical region, 15

cervical vertebrae, 53, 57

cervix, 303, 307

chief cells, 277

choanae, 253

cholesterol molecules, 21

chondrocytes, 33

chordae tendineae, 201

chorion, 315

chorionic cavity, 315

choroid, 163

chromatin, 21

cilia, 23, 255

cingulate gyrus, 123

circular folds, 279

circular layer, 277

circulation, 193,233

circumflex branch, 197

circumflex humeral artery, 213

cisterna chyh, 235

clavicle, 63, 67

clavicular notches, 61

clitoris, 303, 309

coccygeal nerves, 137

coccygeal vertebrae, 53

coccyx, 53, 59

cochlea, 169, 173

cochlear nerve, 173

colic artery, 219

320 meclical

Index

colic veins, 231

collagenous fibers, 29, 33

collateral ligament, 99

collecting duct, 293

coUicuUi, 119

colloid, 181

colon, 281

columnar epithelium, 23

commissure, 159

communicating arteries, 211

conduction fibers, 203

condyle(s), 45, 47,79,81, 95

condyloid (ellipsoidal) joints, 91

cones, 165

connective tissue, 29, 3 1

conoid tubercle, 67

conus elasticus, 259

conus medullaris, 131

convoluted tubule, 293

convolutions, 115, 121

coracoid process, 65

cornea, 163

corniculate cartilages, 259

cornua, 55

coronal section, 3

coronal suture, 45, 47

coronary artery(ies), 197, 199

coronary sinus, 1 99, 20 1

coronoid fossa, 69

coronoid process, 45, 71

corpora quadrigemina, 119

corporea cavernosa, 299

corpus callosum, 119, 121, 177

corpus cavernosum, 299

corpus luteum, 189, 305

corpus spongiosum, 299

corpuscle(s), 39, 153

cortex, 115, 121, 125, 187, 243, 289

costal groove, 61

costal notches, 61
coxal region, 15
cranial cavity, 19
cranial nerves, 133
cranial region, 15
cranioscaral division, 149
cremaster muscle, 297
cribriform plate, 49, 157, 253
cricoid cartilage, 257, 259
cricothyroid ligament, 259
crista galli, 49, 51,253
cross section, 3
crown (tooth), 273
cruciate ligaments, 99
crural region, 15
cubital vein, 227
cuboidal epithelium, 23
cuneiforms, 83
cuspids, 273

cutaneous branches, 145
cutaneous nerve, femoral, 143
cuticle (eponychium),41
cystic duct, 285
cytoplasm, 21, 23
cytoskeleton, 2 1
cytosol, 2 1

dartos muscle, 297
deciduous (milk) teeth, 273
deltoid, 9, 15
deltoid tuberosity, 69
dendrites, 37, 105
dentin, 273
dermatomes, 147
dermis, 39

descending colon, 281
detrusor muscle, 291

developing eye, 1 1 1

diaphragm, 249

diathroses, 85

digestive system, 11, 219, 267

digital arteries, 213, 215

digital region, 15

digital veins, 227, 229

distal (position), 1

dorsal, 1,19

dorsal vein, 299

dorsalis pedis arteries, 2 1 5

dorsum sellae,51

duct(s)

bile, 283, 285

collecting, 293

cystic, 285

ejaculatory, 297

hepatic, 285

lactiferous, 309

lymphatic, 237

nasolacrimal, 159

pancreatic, 285

parotid, 271

semicircular, 169, 171

thoracic, 235, 237
ductus arteriosus, 233
ductus deferens, 295, 297
ductus epididymis, 297
ductus venosus, 233
duodenal papilla, 285
duodenum, 277, 279
dura mater, 135

ear, 167, 169, 171
ECG-conduction pathway, 203
ectoderm, 313
effector (cytotoxic) T cells, 247

Index

medical ^^'

efferent lymphatics, 243
ejaculatory duct, 297
elastic cartilage, 33
elastic fibers, 29, 31, 33, 205
ellipsoidal (condyloid) joints, 91
embryoblast, 31 1
embryonic stage, 313
enamel, 273
endocardium, 201
endocrine glands, 27
endocrine system, 11, 175
endoderm, 313
endolymph, 171
endoplasmic reticulum, 21
endothelium, 205
eosinophils, 195
ependymal cell, 107
epicondyles, 69, 79
epidermis, 39, 153
epididymis, 295, 297, 299
epigastric region, 7
epiglottis, 155,259
epiphyseal plate, 87
epiploic appendages, 281
epithelium, 23, 25, 157, 255
eponychium (cuticle), 41
erythrocytes, 35, 195
esophagus, 1 1 , 267, 269, 275
esophageal sphincter, 275
ethmoidbone, 49, 51
exocrine glands, 27
extension (joint), 101
external nares, 253, 257

external occipital protuberance,

45,47

eye, 111,159,161,163,165
eyebrow, 159
eyelids, 159

facial artery, 209

facial nerve, 133

facial region, 1 5

facial vein, 225

falciform ligament, 283

false pelvis, 75

female breast, 309

female external genitalia, 309

female pelvic arteries, 221

female pelvis, 77

female reproductive system, 301-310

femoral artery, 191,207,215

femoral cutaneous nerve, 143

femoral nerve, 143

femoral region, 15, 17

femoral vein, 191, 223, 229

femur, 9, 79

fertilization, 311

fetal circulation, 233

fetal stage, 315

fetus, 315

fibrious joints, 85

fibrocartilage, 33, 87, 97

fibrocytes, 29

fibrous joints, 85

fibrous layer, 201

fibula, 79, 81

fibular artery, 207

fibular nerve, 145

filiform papillae, 155

filum terminale, 131

fimbriae, 307

fissure, 113, 115, 121,135

flexion, 101

follicle stimulating hormone (FSH),
179

follicle(s)

hair, 41

ovarian, 189

primordial, 305
follicular cells, 181
foot, 83

foramen,45,47, 55,57, 75
foramen magnum, 47
foramen ovale, 51, 201, 233
foramen rotundum, 51
foramina, 59, 127
forearm bones, 71
formed elements, 195
fornix, 123
fossa

coronoid, 69

glenoid, 65, 97

hypophyseal, 1 77

infraspinous, 65

mandibular, 47, 95

olecranon, 69

subscapular, 65

supraspinous, 65

fossa ovalis, 201

fourth ventricle, 1 19, 127

fovea, 163

fovea centralis, 165

free edge, 41

freeribosomes, 21

frontal bone, 43,45,47

frontallobe, 113, 115,117, 119

frontal process of the maxilla, 253

frontal section, 3

frontal sinus, 49

FSH (follicle stimulating hormone),
179

functional layer, 305

fundus, 277, 303, 307

fungiform papillae, 155

_^^ KAPLAN, .

322 medical

Index

gall bladder, 267, 279, 285
ganglia, 151
ganglionic layer, 165
gastric artery, 219
gastric pits, 277
gastric vein, 23 1
gastroepiploic artery, 219
gastroepiploic vein, 23 1
genicular region, 15
genitalia, female external, 309
genitofemoral nerve, 143
GH (growth hormone), 179
gingiva, 269
gland(s),27, 39

adrenal, 1 1

apocrine, 27

bulbourethral, 295

endocrine, 27

holocrine, 27

lacrimal, 159

lymph, 9

mammary, 301, 309

merocine, 27

parathyroid, 183

parotid, 271

pineal, 119, 175,177

pituitary, 117,119,175,177

salivary, 267, 271

sebaceous, 41

sublingual, 271

submandibular, 271
glans penis, 299
glenoid fossa, 65, 97
glenoid labrum, 97
glial cells (neuroglia), 37, 107
gliding joints, 91
glomerular capsule, 293
glomerulus, 293

glossopharyngeal nerve, 133

glottis, 259

gluteal arteries, 221

gluteal nerve, 145

gluteal region, 17

goblet cells, 255

Golgi apparatus, 21

gomphosis, 85

gonadal arteries, 217

gonadal veins, 223, 23 1

gonads, 189

granular leukocytes, 195

granulosa cells, 189

gray horns, 135

gray matter, 121

growth hormone (GH), 179

gustatory cortex, 125

gut, 313

hair, 41

hair cells, 173

hair receptors, 153

hamate, 73

hand bones, 73

hard palate, 253, 255, 257, 269

haustra, 281

head arteries, 209

head veins, 225

heart, 13, 191, 197, 199, 201, 203

helper T cells, 247

hemiazygos veins, 23 1

hemoglobin, 195

hepatic artery, 219, 283

hepatic duct, 285

hepatic flexure, 281

hepatic portal system, 231

hepatic portal veins, 231,283

hepatocytes (liver cells), 283

hierarchy, of the body, 5

hilium, 289

hinge joints, 91,95

hip, 75, 77

hippocampal gyrus, 123

hippocampus, 123

holocrine glands, 27

hormone(s), 179

adrenocorticotrophic (ACTH),
179

antidiuretic (ADH), 179

follicle stimulating (FSH), 179

growth (GH), 179

luteinizing (LH), 179

thyroid stimulating, 179

humeroscapular joint, 97

humerus, 9, 63, 69, 97

hyaline cartilage, 33

hymen, 307

hyoid, 55,61

hyoid bone, 259

hyperextension, 101

hypochondriac regions, 7

hypodermis, 39

hypogastric region, 7

hypoglossal nerve, 133, 139

hyponychium, 41

hypophyseal fossa, 177

hypophysis, 177

hypothalamus, 119

ileocolic artery, 219

ileum, 279

iliac artery, 207, 215, 217, 221, 233

iliac crest, 75

iliac region, 7

iliac spine, 75,77

Index

KAPLAK'_M ■ vn?

medical ^^^

iliac vein, 223, 229

iliohypogastric nerve, 143

ilioinguinal nerve, 143

ilium, 75

immunity, 247

incisors, 273

incus, 169

inferior (position), 1

inferior lobe, 263

inferior oblique, 161

inferior vena cava, 191, 193, 201, 223,
231,233

infraspinous fossa, 65

infudibulum, 177

inguinal region, 7, 15

innerear, 167, 169, 171

integral proteins, 21

integument, 21-42

integumentary system, 1 1, 39

intercalated discs, 37

intercostal arteries, 217

intercostal veins, 23 1

interlobular arteries, 289

interosseus margin, 71

interstitial cells, 1 89

intertrochanteric line, 79

intertrochanteric ridge, 79

intertubercular groove, 69

interventricular artery, 199

interventricular branch, 197

interventricular foramina, 127

interventricular septum, 201

intestinal branches, 219

intestine

large, 267, 281

small, 245, 267, 279
iris, 159

ischial ramus, 77
ischial tuberosity, 77

ischium, 75
isthmus, 181

jaw joint, 95
jejunum, 279
joint capsule, 89
joint(s),91,95,97,99, 101

acetabulofemoral, 97

ball and socket, 91

condyloid, 91

extension, 101

fibrious, 85

gliding, 91

hinge, 91, 95

humeroscapular, 97

jaw, 95

rotating/ rotation, 91,101

sacroiliac, 75

saddle, 91

synovial, 85, 89, 91, 93

temporomandibular, 95

tibofemoral, 99
jugular foramen, 47
jugular veins, 191, 223, 225, 237

karyoplasm, 21
kidneys, 287, 289

labia, 269, 309
labia minora, 303
labial frenulum, 269
labrum, glenoid, 97
labryinths of the inner ear, 171
lacrimal apparatus, 159

lacrimal bone, 45

lacrimal canals, 159

lacrimal gland, 159

lacteals, 245

lactiferous ducts, 309

lactiferous sinuses, 309

lambdoid suture, 45, 47

lamellated corpuscles, 153

lamina elastic interna, 205

laminae, 57

large intestine, 267, 281

larynx, 249, 251, 257, 259

lateral (position), 1

lens, 163

leukocytes, 35, 195

levator palpebrae superioris, 161

LH (luteinizing hormone), 179

Hgament(s)

collateral, 99

cricothyroid, 259

cruciate, 99

falciform, 283

medial collateral, 99

ovarian, 307

peridental, 273

round, 301, 303

suspensory, 163, 303, 307

uterosacral, 307
limbic system, 123
linea aspera, 79
lingual tonsils, 155, 239
lipid layer, 21
liver, 267, 283, 285
liver cells (hepatocytes), 283
liver lobules, 283
LN Cries Drum, 13
longitudinal fissure, 1 15, 121
longitudinal layer, 277
lower extremity, 79

,_- KAPLAN'.

324 medical

Index

lower limb veins, 229

lumbar curvature, 53

lumbar enlargement, 131

lumbar nerves, 1 37

lumbar plexus, 137, 143

lumbar region, 7, 17

lumbosacral plexus, 137

lumen, 205

lunate, 73

lungs, 11,249,251,263

lunula, 41

luteinizing hormone (LH), 179

lymph, 235

lymph capillaries, 235

lymph glands, 9

lymph nodes, 235, 237, 243, 309

lymphatic system, 235

lymphatic duct, 237

lymphatic system, 9

lymphatic vessels, 245, 309

lymphatics (lymph vessels), 9,
235,243

lymphocytes, 195

lysosomes, 21

macula lutea, 165

male pelvic arteries, 22 1

male pelvis, 77

male reproductive system, 295-300,
297

malleolus, 81

malleus, 169

mammary glands, 301, 309

mammillary bodies, 1 17, 1 19, 123

mandible, 43, 45

mandibular condyle, 45

mandibular foramen, 45

mandibular fossa, 47, 95

mandibular notch, 45
manual region, 15
manubrium, 61
marginal artery, 197
masses, 55

mastoid process, 45,51
matrix, 29, 33
maxiallary vein, 225
maxilla, 43, 45, 47, 49, 253
maxillary artery, 209
maxillary vein, 225
meatus, internal acoustic, 49
medial (position), 1
median section, 3
mediastinum, 19
medulla, 187,243,289
medulla oblongata, 1 17, 1 19
medullary cords, 243
Meissner corpuscles, 39
melanin, 39
melanocytes, 39
membrane(s),263

basement, 23,255

basilar, 173

cell, 21, 23

plasma, 2 1

synovial, 89

tympanic (ear drum), 167
membranous labyrinth, 171
memory B cells, 247
memory T cells, 247
meninges, 135
menisci, 89, 99
menstrual cycle, 305
mental foramen, 45
Merkel's disks, 153
merocine glands, 27
mesenteric artery, 217, 219
mesenteric veins, 231

Mesinner's corpuscles, 153
mesoderm, 313
metacarpals, 63, 73
metatarsal arteries, 215
metatarsal veins, 229
metatarsals, 79, 83
microglia, 107
middleear, 167, 169
middle lobe, 263
midsagittal section, 3, 49, 303
milk (deciduous) teeth, 273
mitochondria, 21
molar teeth, 273
molecules, 5,21
monocytes, 195
mons pubis, 309
morula, 311

motor association area, 125
motor cortex, 125
motor speech area, 125
mouth, 267, 269
mucous sheet, 255
mucus, 255

multipolar neuron, 109
muscle tissue, 37
muscle(s)

arrectorpili, 41

cardiac, 37

cremaster, 297

dartos, 297

detrusor, 291

papillary, 201

skeletal, 37

smooth, 37, 205, 291

trachealis, 261
muscular branches, 145
muscular system, 9
muscular tissue, 37
muscularis, 277, 279

Index

K A P L A N'_ H ■ 7 "^ c

medical ^^^

musculocutaneous nerve, 141
myelin sheath, 107
myocardium, 201

nails, 41

nares, 253

nasal bones, 43, 45, 253, 255

nasal cartilages, 253

nasal cavity, 157, 159, 249, 255

nasal conchae, 51, 255, 257

nasal septum, 43, 253

nasolacrimal duct, 159

nasopharynx, 253

neck veins, 225

nephron loop (loop of Henle), 293

nerve cell body (soma), 37, 105

nerve fibers, sensory, 155

nerve(s),9, 273

abducens, 133

accessory, 133

axillary, 141

cervical, 137

coccygeal, 137

cochlear, 173

cranial, 133

facial, 133

femoral cutaneous, 143

fibular, 145

genitofemoral, 143

glossopharyngeal, 133

iliohypogastric, 143

ilioinguinal, 143

lumbar, 137

musculocutaneous, 141

obuturator, 143

oculomotor, 133

olfactory, 133

optic, 133, 161,163, 165

peripheral, 103

phrenic, 139

pudendal, 145

radial, 141

sacral, 137

sciatic, 145

spinal, 103, 135

terminal, 137

thoracic, 137

ulnar, 141

vagus, 133

vestibulocochlear, 133
nervous system, 9, 103-152
nervous tissue, 37
neural development, 1 1 1
neural groove, 313
neural tube, 313
neuroglia (glial cells), 37, 107
neurohypophysis, 177, 179
neurolemmocyte, 107
neuron shapes, 109
neuron(s),37, 105, 109, 151
neurotransmitters, 109
neutrophils, 195
nipple, 301
Nissl bodies, 105
nose, 157,249,253
nostrils, 253, 257
notochord, 313
nuchal region, 17
nuclei, 23, 37
nucleolus, 21
nucleus, 21,255

oblique layer, 277
obturator artery, 22 1

obturator foramen, 75

obturator nerve, 143

occipital artery, 209

occipital bone, 45, 47

occipitallobe, 113, 119

occipital protuberance, external,
45,47

occiptal condyles, 47

oculomotor nerve, 133

olecranon fossa, 69

olecranon process, 71

olecranon region, 17

olfactory bulb, 157

olfactory cells, 157

olfactory epithelium, 157

olfactory nerve, 133

oligodendrocytes, 107

oocytes, 305, 307

optic chiasma, 117, 119

optic disk, 163, 165

opticnerve, 133, 161,163, 165

oral cavity, 269, 275

orbit (of skull), 43

organ systems, 5, 9-13

organelles, 5,21

organism, 5

organs, 5

of the head, 177

sense, 153-174
oropharynx, 269, 275
ossicles, 167
osteocytes, 35
outer ear, 167
oval window, 1 69
ovarian cycle, 305
ovarian follicles, 189
ovarian ligament, 307
ovaries, 13, 175, 189,301,303
ovary, 305, 307

,__ KAPLAN. . .

326 medical

Index

ovulation, 305, 311
oxyphilic cells, 183
oxytocin, 179

Pacinian corpuscles, 39, 153

pain receptors, 153

palate, soft and hard, 253, 255, 257,
269

palatine bones, 47, 49

palatine process of the maxilla, 47

palmar arch arteries, 213

palmar arch veins, 227

pampiniform plexus, 297

pancreas, 175, 185, 267, 279, 285

pancreatic islets, 185

papillary layer, 39

parasympathetic division, 149, 151

parathyroid glands, 183

parietal bones, 45, 47

parietallobe, 113, 115, 119

parietal pericardium, 201

parietal pleura, 263

parotid ducts, 271

parotid glands, 271

patella, 79

patellar tendon, 99

pathway(s)

ECG-conduction, 203

of air, 265
pectoral girdle, 63
pectoral region, 15
pectoralis major, 9
pedal region, 15
pedicles, 57

peduncles, cerebral, 119
pelvic arteries, 221
pelvic cavity, 19
pelvic curvature, 53

pelvis, 75, 77, 289

penis, 295, 299

pericardial cavity, 19

pericardium, 201

peridental ligaments, 273

perilymph, 171

peripheral nerves, 103

peripheral nervous system, 103

peripheral proteins, 21

permanent teeth, 273

peroxisomes, 21

perpendicular plate, 49, 51, 253

phagocytic vesicles, 21

phalanges, 63, 73, 79, 83

pharyngeal tonsils, 239

pharynx, 249

phosphate molecules, 21

phospholipid bilayer, 21

photoreceptor layer, 165

phrenic nerves, 139

pia mater, 135

pineal gland, 119, 175, 177

pituitary gland, 1 17, 1 19, 175, 177,
179

placenta, 233, 315

plantar veins, 229

plasma, 35, 195

plasma cells, 247

plasma membrane, 21

platelets, 35

platelets (thrombocytes), 195

pleura, 249

pleural cavity(ies), 19,263

plexus

cervical, 137, 139

lumbar, 137, 143

lumbosacral, 137

pampiniform, 297

sacral, 137, 145

poUex, 73
pons, 117, 119
popliteal artery, 215
popliteal region, 17
popliteal vein, 229
portal system, 231
portal system, hepatic, 231
portal triad, 283
portal veins, hepatic, 231, 283
postcentral gyrus, 113, 115, 125
posterior (position), 1
postganglionic neurons, 151
postovulatory phase, 305
precentral gyrus, 113, 115, 125
preembryonic stage, 311
premolars (bicuspids), 273
preovulatory phase, 305
prepuce, 299, 309
presynaptic neuron, 109
primitive streak, 313
primordial follicles, 305
principal cells (chief cells), 183
process(es)

acromion, 65

articular, 57, 59

bifid spinous, 57

coracoid, 65

coronoid, 45, 71

mastoid, 45, 51

of the maxilla, 47,253

olecranon, 71

spinous, 55, 57

styloid, 45, 47, 51, 71

transverse, 57

zygomatic, 45, 51
prolactin, 179
prosencephalon, 111
prostate, 295, 297, 299
proteins, 21

Index

KArLAN_M _ t%^

medical ^^^

proximal (position), 1

pseudostratified ciliated columnar
epithelium, 23, 255

pseudounipolar neurons, 109

pterygoid plate(s), 47, 51

pubic ramus, 77

pubic symphysis, 75

pubis, 75

pudendal artery, 22 1

pudendal nerve, 145

pulmonary artery, 193, 199

pulmonary circulation, 193

pulmonary semilunar valve, 201, 203

pulmonary trunk, 191,201,233

pulmonary veins, 193, 199

pulp cavity, 273

pupil, 159

Purkinje fibers, 203

pyloric canal, 277

pyloric region, 277

pyloric sphincter, 277

quadrants (of regions), 7
quadrate lobe (liver), 283

radial artery, 207, 213
radial nerve, 141
radial notch, 71
radial tuberosity, 71
radial veins, 223, 227
radius, 63
ramus, 45, 77
receptors, pain, 153
rectal arteries, 219,221
rectouterine pouch, 303
rectum, 28 1

rectus, 161

red blood cells (erythrocytes), 35, 195

red pulp, 241

region(s), 7, 15, 17

renal arteries, 217, 287, 289

renal veins, 223, 23 1

renal capsule, 289

renal columns, 289

renal corpuscle, 293

renal medulla, 289

renal pelvis, 289

renal pyramids, 289

reproductive system, 13, 295-300,
297,301-310

respiratory system, 1 1, 249-266

reticular connective tissue, 31

reticular fibers, 29, 3 1

reticular layer, 39

retina, 163, 165

return drainage, 237

rhombencephalon, 111

ribosomes,21

ribs, 61

rods, 165

root canal, 273

rootlets, 135

rotation (joint), 91, 101

round ligaments, 301, 303

round window, 169

rugae, 277, 307

saccule, 169
sacral crest, 59
sacral foramina, 59
sacral nerves, 137
sacral plexus, 137, 145
sacral promontory, 59
sacral vertebrae, 53

sacroiliac joint, 75

sacrum, 53, 59

saddle joints, 9 1

sagittal section, 3

sagittal sinus, 225

sagittal suture, 47

salivary glands, 267, 271

saphenous vein, 223, 229

scala media, 173

scala tympani, 173

scala vestibuli, 1 73

scaphoid, 73

scapula, 65

scapulae, 63

scapular region, 17

scapular spine, 65

Schwann cell, 107

sciatic nerve, 145

sciatic notch, 77

sclera, 159, 163

scleral venous sinus, 163

scrotal sac, 297, 299

sebaceous gland, 41

sections, body, 3

segmental arteries, 289

sella turcica, 49, 51

semicircular canal, 171

semicircular ducts, 169, 171

seminal vesicles, 295, 297, 299

seminiferous tubules, 189,299

sense organs, 153-174

sensory nerve fibers, 155

septal cartilage, 253, 257

serosa, 277

serous layer, 201

sertoH cells, 299

shaft, hair, 41

sigmoid artery, 219

sigmoid colon, 281

,»« KAPLAN,.

328 medical

Index

sinoatrial node, 203
sinus(es)

cavity, 49

coronary, 199,201

frontal, 49

lactiferous, 309

sagittal, 225

scleral venous, 163

sphenoid, 49
sinusoids, 283
skeletal muscle, 37
skeletal system, 9, 43-84
skeleton, appendicular, 63
skin, 1 1

skin receptors, 153
skull, 43, 45, 47, 49
small intestine, 245, 267, 279
smooth muscle, 37, 205, 291
soft palate, 253,255,269
soma, 105

somatic nervous system, 103
somatosensory cortex, 115, 125
speech area, motor, 125
spermatic cord, 297
spermatids, 299
spermatocytes, 299
spermatogonia, 299
spermatozoa (sperm cells), 299
sphenoid bone, 43,45,47, 51, 177
sphenoid sinus, 49
sphincter, pyloric, 277
spinal canal, 19
spinalcord,9, 103, 131,135
spinal nerve(s), 103, 135
spine, 65, 75, 77
spinous process, 55, 57
spiral organ (organ of Corti), 173
spleen, 9, 235,241
splenicartery, 219, 241

splenic cords, 241

splenic flexure, 281

splenic vein, 231, 241

spongy urethra, 299

squamous epithelium, 23, 25

squamous portion, 51

squamous suture, 45

stapes, 169

sternal region, 15

sternal-rib junction, 87

sternum, 61

stomach, 1 1, 267, 277

stratified epithelia, 25

stratified squamous epithelium, 25

stratum basale, 39

stratum corneum, 39

stratum granulosum, 39

stratum lucidum, 39

stratum spinosum, 39

striations, 37

styloid process, 45,47, 51,71

subclavian artery, 207, 209, 213

subclavian vein, 223, 227, 237

sublingual glands, 271

submandibular glands, 271

submucosa, 277, 279

subpubic angle, 77

subscapular artery, 213

subscapular fossa, 65

sulcus(i),113, 115,121,135

superior (position), 1

superior border, 65

superior oblique, 161

supporting cells, 157

supracondylar ridges, 69

supraspinous fossa, 65

suprasternal notch, 61

sural region, 17

surfactant, 265

surgical neck, 69

suspensory ligaments, 163, 303, 307

suture(s),45,47, 85

sweat glands, 39

sympathetic chain ganglia, 149

sympathetic division, 149

symphysis, 87

symphysis pubis, 299

synapses, 105, 109

synaptic neuron, 109

synaptic vesicles, 1 09

synarthroses, 85

synchondrosis, 87

syndesmosis, 85

synovial cavity, 89

synovial fluid, 89

synovial joints, 85, 89, 91 , 93

synovial membranes, 89

system(s)

autonomic nervous, 103, 149, 151

cardiovascular, 13, 191-234

central nervous, 103

digestive, 11,219,267

endocrine, 11, 175

female reproductive, 301-3 10

hepatic portal, 231

integumentary, 11,39

limbic, 123

lymphatic, 9, 235

male reproductive, 295-300, 297

muscular, 9

organ, 5,9-13

peripheral nervous, 103

portal, 231

respiratory, 11,249-266

skeletal, 9, 43-84

somatic nervous, 103

urinary, 13, 287
systemic circulation, 193

Index

nieclical ^29

T cells, 195,247

talus, 83

tarsal bones, 83

tarsals, 79

taste buds, 155

taste pore, 155

teeth, 273

temporal vein, 225

temporomandibular joint, 95

tendon sheath, 89

tendon, patellar, 99

teniae coli, 281

terminal nerves, 137

testes, 13, 175,189,295,297

testicular artery, 297

thalamus, 119, 121

third ventricle, 121, 127

thoracic aorta, 207, 217

thoracic nerves, 137

thoracolumbar division, 149

thrombocytes (platelets), 195

thymus, 237

thyroid cartilage, 251, 257, 259

thyroidgland, 11,175, 181

thyroid stimulating hormone, 179

tibia, 79, 81

tibial artery, 207, 215

tibial condyle, 81

tibial crest, 81

tibial tuberosity, 8 1

tibial veins, 229

tibofemoral joint, 99

tissue(s),5, 21-42

tongue, 155,239,269

tonsillar (Waldeyer's) ring, 239

tonsils, 155,239

trabeculae carneae, 20 1

trachea, 11, 249, 251, 257, 259, 261

tracheal rings, 261

tracheahs muscle, 261

transitional epithelium, 25

transverse processes, 57

trapezium, 73

trapezoid, 73

tricuspid valve, 201 , 203

trigeminal nerve, 133

trigone, 291

trilaminar germ disk, 313

triquetrum,73

trochanter, 79

trochlea, 69

trochlear nerve, 133

trochlear notch, 71

trophoblast, 31 1

true pelvis, 75

trunk veins, 231

tuberosity, 71, 77

tubule(s),189,293,299

tunica externa (tunica adventitia),
205

tunica intima (tunica interna), 205

tunica media, 205

two-celled stage, 311

tympanic cavity, 169

tympanic membrane (ear drum), 167

type II alveolar cells, 265

ulna, 63

ulnar artery, 207, 213
ulnar nerve, 141
ulnar notch, 71
ulnar veins, 223, 227
umbihcal arteries, 233
umbihcal region, 7
umbihcal vein, 233
upper dermis, 153

upper extremity, 63
upper limb arteries, 213
upper hmb veins, 227
ureteral orifices, 291
ureters, 287, 289, 291, 297
urethral orifice, 309
urethra, 13,287, 291
urinary bladder, 287, 291, 297
urinary system, 13, 287
urogenital triangle, 309
uterine arteries, 221
uterine tubes, 301, 303, 307
uterosacral ligament, 307
uterus, 301,303,307
utricle, 169
uvula, 269

vagina, 301,303,307
vaginal arteries, 221
vaginal orifice, 309
vagus nerve, 133
vallate papillae, 155
valve(s),201,203
vasopressin, 179
vein(s)

antebrachial, 227

axillary, 223, 227

azygos,231

basilic, 223, 227

brachiocephahc, 223, 225

cardiac, 197, 199

central, 283

cephalic, 223, 227

colic, 231

cubital, 227

digital, 227, 229

dorsal, 299

330 nieclical

Index

facial, 225

femoral, 191,223,229

gastric, 231

gastroepiploic, 231

gonadal, 223,231

head, 225

hemiazygos, 231

hepatic portal, 231, 283

iliac, 223, 229

intercostal, 231

jugular, 191,223,225,237

lower limb, 229

maxillary, 225

mesenteric, 231

metatarsal, 229

neck, 225

palmar arch, 227

plantar, 229

popliteal, 229

pulmonary, 193, 199

radial, 223, 227

renal, 223, 231

saphenous, 223, 229

splenic, 231,241

subclavian, 223, 227, 237

temporal, 225

tibial, 229

ulnar, 223, 227

umbilical, 233

upper limb, 227

vena cava, 191, 193, 201, 223, 225,
231,233

vertebral, 223, 225

vena cava veins, 191, 193, 201, 223,
225,231,233

ventral cavity, 19

ventral root, 135

ventricle(s), 1 19, 121, 127, 193, 201

venules, 193, 235

vermiform appendix, 281

vertebrae, 53, 57

vertebral arch, 57

vertebral arteries, 21 1

vertebral column, 53

vertebral foramen, 55, 57

vertebral region, 17

vertebral vein, 223, 225

vesical arteries, 221

vesicles, 21, 27, 109, 295, 297, 299

vessels, 205, 245, 309

vestibular fold, 259

vestibular membrane, 173

vestibule, 169

vestibulocochlear nerve, 133

vetebral foramen, 55

villi, 245, 279

visceral pericardium, 201

visceral pleura, 263

visual association area, 125

vitreous humor, 163

vocal cord, 259

vocal fold, 257

vomer, 47, 49, 253

Waldeyer's (tonsillar) ring, 239
Wernicke's area, 125
white blood cells, 35, 195

white matter, 121
white pulp, 24 1
wings, 47, 51

xiphoid process, 61

yolk sac, 313

zona fasciculata, 187
zona glomerulosa, 187
zona reticularis, 187
zygomatic bones, 43
zygomatic process, 45, 51
zygote, 311

Special Flashcard Section: Muscles of the Human Body | 331

INTRODUCTION

Muscles can be grouped into anatomical regions such as muscles of the head, arm or torso.
Muscles can also be functionally related, for example, muscles that act on the thigh or
muscles that flex the hand.

Origin, Insertion, Action

The origin of the muscle is the stable part of the muscle. The majority of muscles have
origins that are superior, proximal, or medial to the insertion. There are only a few
exceptions to this rule. The insertion of the muscle is the part of the muscle that has the
greatest motion when the muscle contracts. In some cases a muscle can move either the
origin or the insertion and you should learn the origins and insertions as presented. The
action of a muscle is what the muscle does. Some muscles are flexors and decrease joint
angles. Some are extensors, adductors, abductors, rotators, etc. The action of the muscle is
every movement the muscle does.

When you study muscles, it helps to take two or three at a time and learn just the origins of
the muscles. When you know those, then study the insertions, and finally, the actions. After
you know the muscles well, then take another group of muscles and add them to the list. If
you try to learn twenty muscles at a time, the task will be frustrating, so it is best to take them
in small groups.

Muscle Names

The muscles are named by different criteria and understanding how they are named can help
you to remember the muscle. Muscles can be named for their shape. The trapezius is a
trapezoid-like muscle. The rhomboideus muscles are shaped like a rhombus. Muscles can be
named by the number of heads they have. The triceps brachii has three heads. Muscles can be
named by location. The rectus abdominis literally means "the straight muscle of the
abdomen." The tibialis anterior is the front muscle on the tibia. Muscles can be named
according to size. The teres major is the large muscle and the teres minor is the small muscle.
Teres means "round." Some muscles are superficial while others are deep. The flexor
digitorum superficialis is superficial to the flexor digitorum profundus. Muscles can also be
named for their action. There are the adductors, the flexors and extensor muscles, etc.

Muscles that cross joints of the body move those joints. The main muscle that causes the
joint to move is called the prime mover or agonist. A muscle that helps the prime mover is
called a synergist. A muscle that opposes the prime mover is called an antagonist. If both the
prime mover and the antagonist contract, then the joint is fixed.

Muscle Groups

There are groups of muscles that act together. The rotator cuff (musculotendinous cuff)
muscles stabilize the shoulder joint. These are the supraspinatus, the infraspinatus the teres
minor and the subscapularis. The abdominal muscles are the rectus abdominis, the external
oblique, the internal oblique, and the transversus abdominis. The quadriceps femoris group
are the muscles of the anterior thigh. These are the rectus femoris, the vastus lateralis, the
vastus medialis, and the vastus intermedins. The hamstrings are muscles on the posterior
thigh and they consist of the biceps femoris, the semitendinosus, and the semimembranosus.
There are many more functional groups of muscles but these are a few of the major ones.

The muscles of the body are numerous and flash cards are a great tool to learn muscles. Cut
out the cards along the lines. As we said before, it is best to take a few cards at a time and
learn them well. You should color each muscle on the front side of the card and put a small
'O' where the origin of the muscle is and a small T" where the insertion of the muscle is. Each
muscle is illustrated isolated from other muscles so that the origin and the insertion are
plainly visible. The name of the muscle is on the back of the illustration. The origin (O),
insertion (I), and action (A) are listed for each muscle on the back of the card.

Special Muscle Flashcard Section
Muscles of the Human Body

KAPlAtr.. .

medical

333

MUSCLES, ANTERIOR VIEW

Answer Key: a. Sternocleidomastoid, b. Pectoralis major, c. Deltoid, d. Biceps brachii, e. Rectus abdominis, f. External oblique, g. Sartorius,
h. Quadriceps femoris, i. Tibialis anterior

Special Muscle Flashcard Section
Muscles of the Human Body

KAPLAir.. .

medical

335

MUSCLES, POSTERIOR VIEW

Answer Key: a. Trapezius, b. Deltoid, c.Triceps brachii, d. Latissimus dorsi, e. Extensor digitorum, f. Gluteus maximus, g. Adductor magnus,
h. Iliotibial tract, i. Biceps femoris, j. Gastrocnemius

OCCIPITALIS

O: Occipital bone and temporal bone
I: Galea aponeurotica
A: Pulls scalp posteriorly

FRONTALIS

O: Galea aponeurotica
1: Skin near eyebrows
A: Raises eyebrows, pulls scalp anteriorly

MASSETER

O: Zygomatic arch
I: Ramus of mandible
A: Closes mandible

TEMPORALIS

O: Temporal fossa

I: CA^ronoid process and ramus of the mandible

A: Closes mandible

ORBICULARIS OCULI

O: Frontal bone and maxilla on medial orbit
I: Eyelid
A: Closes eye

MEDIAL AND LATERAL PTERYGOIDS

O: Pterygoid processes of sphenoid bone

I: Ramus and condylar process of mandible on
medial side

A: Lateral movement of mandible

MENTALIS

O: Anterior, medial mandible

I: Skin of chin

A: Elevates lower lip

ORBICULARIS ORIS

O: Muscles encircling mouth
I: Skin of lips
A: Closes mouth

ZYGOMATICUS

O: Zygomatic bone
I: Angle of mouth
A: Elevates corners of mouth (in a smile or laugh)

BUCCINATOR

O: Mandible and maxilla
I: Orbicularis oris
A: Tightens cheek

DEPRESSOR LABII INFERIORIS

O: hiferior border of mandible

I: Skin of inferior lip, and orbicularis oris muscle

A: Depresses lower lip

SCALENUS

O: Transverse process of C 2-6

I: Ribs 1 and 2

A: Flexes antf rotates neck, elevates first and second ribs

LEVATOR SCAPULAE

O: Transverse processes of CI -4

I: Superior angle of scapula

A: Elevates scapula, rotates and abducts neck

STERNOCLEIDOMASTOID

O: Sternum and clavicle

I: Mastoid process

A: One: rotates and extends head, both: flexes neck

STERNOHYOID

O: Manubrium of sternum

1: Hyoid bone

A; Depresses hyoid bone

STERNOTHYROID

O: Manubrium of sternum
1: Thyroid cartilage of larynx
A: Depresses thyroid cartilage

OMOHYOID

O: Superior border of scapula
1: Hyoid bone
A: Depresses hyoid

PLATYSMA

O: Fascia over pectoralis major and deltoid muscles
I: Mandible and skin inferior to lower lip
A: Depresses lower lip

DIGASTRIC

O: Anterior, inferior mandible, mastoid notcli of
temporal bone

I: Hyoid bone

A: Protracts, retracts, and elevates hyoid, opens
mandible

MYLOHYOID

O: Inner margin of mandible

1: Hyoid bone

A: Elevates floor of oral cavity

TRAPEZIUS

O: Occipital protuberance, ligamentum nuchae,
C7-T12

1: Clavicle, acromion, and spine of scapula

A: Abducts and extends head, rotates and adducts
scapula

SPLENIUS

O: Ligamentum nuchae, C7-T6

1: C2-4, occipital bone, temporal bone

A: Extends and rotates head

LATISSIMUS DORSI

O: T7-T12, L1-L5, sacrum, iliac crest, ribs 10-12

I: Intcrtubercular groove of humerus

A: Adducts, extends, and medially rotates arm, pulls
shoulder inferiorlv

SEMISPINALIS

O: C4-T12

1: Occipital bone, Tl-4

A: Extends head, rotates vertebral column

DELTOID

O: Clavicle, acromion, and spine of scapula

I: Deltoid tuberosity

A: Abducts, flexes, extends medially, and laterally rotates
arm

SUPRASPINATUS

O: Supraspinous fossa
I: Greater tubercle of humerus
A: Abducts arm, stabilizes shoulder

INFRASPINATUS

O: Infraspinous fossa

1: Greater tubercle of humerus

A; Extends, laterally rotates arm, stabilizes shoulder

TERES MINOR

O: Axillary border of scapula

[: Greater tubercle of humerus

A: Extends, laterally rotates, adducts arm, stabilizes
shoulder

SUBSCAPULARIS

O: Subscapular fossa

I: Lesser tubercle of humerus

A: Extends, medially rotates arm, stabilizes shoulder

RHOMBOIDEUS MAJOR

O: T1-T4

i: Inferior, medial border of scapula

A: Adducts scapula

'^:=o^^''^-^

TERES MAJOR

O: Axillary border of scapula

I: Crest of lesser tubercle of humerus

A: Extends, adducts, medially rotates arm

RHOMBOIDEUS MINOR

O: Ligamentum nuchae, C6-C7

I: Superior, medial border of scapula

A: Adducts scapula

ERECTOR SPINAE: (SPINALIS, LONCISSIMUS,
ILIOCOSTALIS) AND MULTIFIDUS

O: Vertebral column, ilium, sacrum, ribs

I: Ribs, vertebral column, occipital bone, temporal
bone

A: Rotates and extends vertebral column and head

PECTORALIS MAJOR

O: Clavicle, sternum, and ribs 1-7

1: Crest of greater tubercle of humerus

A: Adducts, flexes, and rotates arm medially

QUADRATUS LUMBORUM

O: Iliac crest, low^er lumbar vertebrae

I: T12, L1-L4, rib 12

A: Abducts vertebral column, depresses rib 12

SERRATUS ANTERIOR

O: Ribs 1-8 or 9

I: Vertebral border of scapula

A: Abducts scapula

PECTORALIS MINOR

O: Ribs 3-5

I: Coracoid process of scapula

A: Depresses scapula, elevates ribs 3-5

INTERNAL INTERCOSTALIS

O: Inferior margin of ribs 1-1 1

I: Superior margin of ribs 2-1 2

A: Depresses ribs (decreases thoracic volume)

EXTERNAL INTERCOSTALIS

O: Inferior margin of ribs 1-1 1

I: Superior margin of ribs 2-12

A: Elevates ribs (increases thoracic volume)

RECTUS ABDOMINIS

O: Symphysis pubis and pubic crest

1: Cartilages of ribs 5-7 and xiphoid process

A: Flexes lumbar vertebrae, compresses abdomen

DIAPHRAGM

O: Xiphoid process, ribs 10-12, lumbar vertebrae
I: Central tendon
A: Inspiration

INTERNAL OBLIQUE

O: Inguinal ligament, iliac crest

I: Linea alba, inferior 4 ribs

A: Compresses abdomen, laterally rotates trunk

EXTERNAL OBLIQUE

O: Ribs 3-12

I: Iliac crest, inguinal ligament, linea alba

A: Compresses abdomen, laterally rotates trunk

BICEPS BRACHII

O: Supraglenoid tubercle, coracoid process

I: Radial tuberosity

A: Flexes arm, flexes and laterally rotates forearm
(supinates hand)

TRANSVERSUS ABDOMINIS

O: Iliac crest, inguinal ligament, ribs 7-12

I: Linea alba, pubis

A: Compresses abdomen, laterally rotates trunk

CORACOBRACHIALIS

O: Coracoid process

I: Medial shaft of humerus

A: Adducts and flexes arm

TRICEPS BRACHII

O: Infraglenoid tuberosity of scapula, posterior surface
of humerus

I: Olecranon process

A: Adducts arm, extends arm and forearm

BRACHIORADIALIS

O: Lateral supracondylar ridge of humerus
1: Styloid process of radius
A: Flexes forearm

BRACHIALIS

O: Anterior, distal humerus
I: Coronoid process of ulna
A: Flexes forearm

PRONATOR TERES

O: Medial epicondyle of humerus, coronoid process of
ulna

I: Lateral radius

A: Flexes and medially rotates forearm (pronates hand)

SUPINATOR

O: Lateral epicondyle of humerus, proximal ulna
L Proximal shaft of radius
A: Supinates hand

PALMARIS LONGUS

O: Medial epicondyle of humerus
h Palmar aponeurosis
A: Flexes hand

PRONATOR QUADRATUS

O: Anterior, distal ulna

I: Anterior, distal radius

A: Medially rotates forearm (pronates hand)

FLEXOR CARPI ULNARIS

O: Medial epicondyle of humerus olecranon and
proximal ulna

L Pisiform, hamate, metacarpal 5

A: Flexes and adducts hand

FLEXOR CARPI RADIALIS

O: Medial epicondyle of humerus

I: Metacarpals 2 and 3

A: Flexes and abducts hand

FLEXOR DIGITORUM PROFUNDUS

O: Proximal ulna, interosseus membrane
I: Anterior distal phalanges of digits 2-5
A: Flexes phalanges 2-5, flexes hand

FLEXOR DIGITORUM SUPERFICIALIS

O: Medial epicondyle of humerus, coronoid process of
ulna, proximal shaft of radius

I: Middle phalanges of digits 2-5

A: Flexes proximal and middle phalanges of digits 2-5,
flexes hand

FLEXOR POLLICIS LONGUS

O: Anterior aspect of radius and interosseus membrane
I: Distal phalanx of thumb (pollex)
A: Flexes thumb

EXTENSOR CARPI ULNARIS

O: Lateral epicondyle of humerus, posterior ulna

h Metacarpal 5

A: Extends and adducts hand

EXTENSOR CARPI RADIALIS LONGUS

O: Lateral supracondylar ridge of humerus

1: Metacarpal 2

A: Extends and abducts hand

ABDUCTOR POLLICIS LONGUS

O: Posterior radial and ulnar surface, interosseus mem-
brane

1: Metacarpal 1

A: Abducts and extends thumb

EXTENSOR CARPI RADIALIS BREVIS

O: Lateral epicondyle of humerus

I: Metacarpal 3

A: Extends and abducts hand

EXTENSOR POLLICIS BREVIS

O: Posterior radius, interosseus membrane
I: Proximal phalanx of thumb (pollex)
A: Extends thumb

EXTENSOR DIGITORUM

O: Lateral epicondyle of humerus

I: Middle and distal phalanges of digits 2-5

A: Extends all phalanges of digits 2-5, extends hand

PSOAS MAJOR

O: T12, Ll-5

1: Lesser trochanter of femur

A: Flexes thigh and lumbar vertebrae

EXTENSOR POLLICIS LONGUS

O: Posterior ulna, interosseus membrane
I: Distal phalanx of thumb (pollex)
A: Extends thumb

rx,

ILIACUS

O: Iliac fossa, sacrum

I: Lesser trochanter of femur

A: Flex thigh

SARTORIUS

O; Anterior superior iliac spine

1: Medial side of tibial tuberosity

A: Flexes and laterally rotates thigh, flexes leg

TENSOR FASCIAE LATAE

O: Anterior superior iliac spine

I: Lateral condyle of tibia by the iliotibial band

A: Flexes, medially rotates, and abducts thigh

PECTINEUS

O: Pubis

1: Proximal, posterior femur

A: Adducts and laterally rotates thigh

GRACILIS

O: Pubis

I: Proximal pcirtion of medial tibia

A: Adducts thigh, flexes leg

ADDUCTOR LONGUS

O: Pubis

1: Middle linea aspera of femur

A: Adducts and laterally rotates thigh

ADDUCTOR BREVIS

O: Pubis

I: Proximal linea aspera of femur

A: Adducts and laterally rotates thigh

RECTUS FEMORIS

O: Anterior inferior iliac spine

1: Tibial tuberosity

A: Flexes thigh, extends leg

ADDUCTOR MAGNUS

O: Ischium and pubis

1: Linea aspera and adductor tubercle of femur

A: Adducts, flexes, extends, and laterally rotates thigh

VASTUS INTERMEDIUS

O: Anterior and lateral part of femur
I: Tibial tuberosity
A: Extends leg

VASTUS LATERALIS

O: Greater trochanter and linea aspera of femur
I: Tibial tuberosity
A: Extends leg

GLUTEUS MAXIMUS

O: Lateral surface of ilium, sacrum, coccyx

I: Lateral condyle of tibia by lateral fascia, gluteal
tuberosity of femur

A: Extends, abducts, and laterally rotates thigh

'^ '^\V^

&':QU

VASTUS MEDIAUS

O: Linea aspera of femur
I: Tibial tuberosity
A: Extends leg

GLUTEUS MINIMUS

O: Outer ilium

I: Greater trochanter of femur

A: Medially rotates and abducts thigh

GLUTEUS MEDIUS

O: Outer ilium

I: Greater trochanter of femur

A: Medially rotates and abducts thigh

SEMITENDINOSUS

O: Ischial tuberosity

I: Medial tibia near tibial tuberosity

A: Extends thigh, flexes and medially rotates leg

BICEPS FEMORIS

O: Ischial tuberosity, distal linea aspera of femur

I: Head of fibula, lateral tibia

A: Extends thigh, flexes and laterally rotates leg

TIBIALIS ANTERIOR

O: Lateral tibia

I: First metatarsal and medial cuneiform

A: Dorsiflexes and inverts foot

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SEMIMEMBRANOSUS

O: Ischial tuberosity

I: Medial tibial condyle

A: Extends thigh, flexes and medially rotates leg

EXTENSOR HALLUCIS LONGUS

O: Medial shaft of fibula, interosseous membrane

I: Distal phalanx of hallux (first digit)

A: Extends hallux, dorsiflexes foot and inverts foot

EXTENSOR DICITORUM LONGUS

O: Lateral tibial condyle, shaft of fibula

1: Middle and distal phalanges of digits 2-5

A: Extends digits 2-5, dorsiflexes and everts foot

FIBULARIS BREVIS

O: Fibula

I: Metatarsal 5

A: Plantar flexes and everts foot

FIBULARIS LONGUS

O: Proximal fibula, lateral condyle of tibia
I: First metatarsal, medial cuneiform
A: Plantar flexes and everts foot

GASTROCNEMIUS

O: Lateral and medial condyles of femur

1: Calcaneus

A: Flexes leg, plantar flexes foot

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FIBULARISTERTIUS

O: Distal fibula, interosseous membrane
I: Superior aspect of metatarsal 5
A: Dorsiflexes and everts foot

POPUTEUS

O: Lateral condyle of femur

I: Proximal tibia

A: Flexes and medially rotates leg

SOLEUS

O: Posterior tibia and fibula

1: Calcaneus

A: Plantar flexes foot

FLEXOR DIGITORUM LONGUS

O: Posterior tibia

I; L^istal phalanges of digits 2-5

A: Flexes toes, plantar flexes and inverts foot

TIBIALIS POSTERIOR

O: Posterior tibia and fibula

I: Metatarsals 2-4, navicular, cuneiforms and cuboid

A: Plantar flexes and inverts foot

FLEXOR HALLUCIS LONGUS

O: Middle fibula

1: Distal pbalanx of hallux

A: Flexes hallux, plantar flexes and inverts foot

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